Millet (Revised)

Millets refers to a group of small-seeded annual grasses belonging to the family Poaceae (Gramineae). They are often cultivated as cereals and are found in the arid and semiarid regions of the world.

These grasses produce small seeded grains and are often cultivated as cereals. The most widely cultivated species are: 

• Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)
• Foxtail millet (Setaria italica)
• Common millet or proso millet (Panicum miliaceum)
• Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)

Millet cultivation dates back thousands of years, with evidence suggesting its domestication in various regions of the world. Pearl millet originated in West Africa, while proso millet was likely domesticated in eastern Europe and Asia. Foxtail millet is believed to have originated in China, and finger millet in East Africa.

Millet has been a staple food in many cultures for centuries. It is consumed in various forms, such as whole grains, flour, porridge, and flatbreads. The husked grain of millet has a slightly nutty flavor and can be eaten whole after roasting or after cooking or boiling like rice. Millet flour is used for making mush, porridge, flat bread or chapati. The flour is also used for making wine or beer. The grain is a feed for animals. The green plant is used as forage, but the quality of the straw is poor. Brooms are made from the straw. Starch from the grains is used for sizing textiles. Some millet varieties will survive drought conditions where maize crops often fail to reach maturity. The popularity of millet fell for some years due to introduction of maize, wheat and rice, but is again on the rise with millers being able to sell far more than is delivered. 
Millet is a nutrient-rich grain. It is a good source of complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and essential minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, and phosphorus. Millet is also rich in B vitamins, particularly niacin (vitamin B3) and folate. It is gluten-free, making it suitable for people with gluten sensitivities. Key producers of millet include India, China, Nigeria, Niger, and Mali. India is a major producer and consumer of millet, with pearl millet being an important crop in arid and semi-arid regions. Millet is fast becoming a popular baby food as the grains are rich in calcium and have a pleasant flavour.

Species account

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)
Pearl millet belongs to the genus Pennisetum that comprises approximately 80 to 140 species varying based on different taxonomic sources and classification systems. Other notable species within the genus Pennisetum include: Napier Grass (Pennisetum purpureum); Purple Fountain Grass (Pennisetum setaceum); Fountain Grass (Pennisetum alopecuroides).
Pearl millet is believed to have originated in Africa, particularly in the Sahel region, but it has been cultivated and adapted in many tropical and subtropical regions across Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The crop is known for its drought tolerance and ability to grow in soils with low fertility 
P. glaucum is a tall annual grass, usually 1.5-2.5 m (some varieties up to 5 m) cultivated for its grain. Stems often branched and in many cases several arising from the rootstock. Leaves: slightly hairy, long and narrow. Flowers: head cylindrical, up to 20 cm long (some cultivars up to 50 cm) greenish white at first (due to styles), turning dirty yellow-brown (due to anthers) then grey as grain matures. Large amounts of pollen produced. Fruits: grains 1.5-2.5 mm long, greenish grey, oval and may be conspicuous or, as in some varieties, hidden by long bristles. 
Pearl millet is considered as a staple food in Africa and India where it is used to make flour, bread, stiff porridge, "couscous" and making fermented/ non-fermented beverages. The stalks are employed as mulch and are believed to enhance the soil for crops like maize. They are not suitable as animal fodder. The grain is utilized as bird feed.
Crop may be sown by broadcasting or in lines then covered with a little soil. Traditionally several grains are dropped at intervals of about 30 cm. Crop lines can be at intervals of 0.5-0.7 m. Bulrush millet may be intercropped with maize but in different lines. Maize thinly scattered among the millet also gives good results. Grain yields range from 250 kg to 1500 kg/ha, with average 670 kg/ha in Africa and 790 kg/ha in India).
(Maundu et al., 1999, Andrews et al., 2006, National Academies of Sciences, 1996, Heuzé V., Tran G., 2015)

Common millet or proso millet (Panicum miliaceum)
Proso millet belongs to the genus Panicum that encompasses about 470 species distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Other notable species within the genus include: Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Hall's panicgrass (Panicum hallii), and Buffelgrass (Panicum coloratum).
P. miliaceum is believed to have originated in Asia, possibly in China. It has a long history of cultivation in various parts of the world. It is now grown across different continents, including Europe, Asia, North America, and Africa. Proso millet is a warm-season annual grass, commonly grown as a late-seeded summer crop.  The crop thrives in hot, dry conditions at high elevations (1200-3500 m), it needs 200-400 units of annual rainfall, with 35-40% during its growth period. It's versatile with soil except coarse sand, making it adaptable and valuable for such environments.
Proso millet is an erect annual grass that’s grow to a height of 1.2-1.5 m, usually free-tillering and tufted, with a rather shallow root system. Stems: cylindrical, simple or sparingly branched, with simple alternate and hairy leaves. Inflorescence: is a slender panicle with solitary spikelets. Fruits: a small grain broadly ovoid, up to 3 mm x 2 mm, smooth, variously colored but often white, and shedding easily.
The grains are mainly consumed by humans. They can be boiled liked rice, roasted, turned into porridge, ground, or baked into flatbread. There are sticky (Glutinous) and non-sticky types (Non glutinous). Flour from the Sticky types is used for making bread and cakes, while other types need to be mixed with wheat flour. Non-sticky types can replace wheat for those who can't have gluten. Proso millet flour is also used for making wine or beer. The grain is a feed for animals, including ruminants, pigs, poultry, and pet birds. The green plant serves as forage, but the straw's quality is low. Straw is utilized for creating brooms. Additionally, the starch from the grains is utilized in sizing textiles.
(Tran G., 2015, Kaume, R.N., 2006, PROSEA, 2016)

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica)
The species belongs to the genus Setaria which comprises approximately 100-125 species. Other notable species within the Setaria genus are Green foxtail (Setaria viridis) and Yellow foxtail (Setaria pumila).
Foxtail millet is believed to have originated in East Asia, particularly in China and surrounding regions where it has been cultivated for thousands of years. The crop is now widely grown in countries across Asia, including India, China, Japan, and Korea. It is also cultivated in parts of Europe and Africa. Ecologically, foxtail millet is well-suited to arid and semi-arid regions. It is known for its ability to tolerate drought and grow in poor soils. It's often used in areas with limited water availability or as a secondary crop in regions where the main staple crops may not thrive.
Foxtail millet is a fast growing annual grass that grows to a height of 1 to 1.5 meters. Stems: erect, slender and tiller from the base. Leaves: alternate with lanceolate and serrated blades, 15-50 cm long and 0.5-4 cm broad. Inflorescences: The inflorescence is an erect or pendulous spike-like bristly panicle bearing 6 to 12 spikelets. Grains: small, oval-shaped, and vary in color from white and yellow to brown.
Foxtail millet is a dual-purpose plant grown for its grain, which is used for human food and livestock fodder. The grain is a dietary staple in Asia, southeastern Europe, and northern Africa. It can be cooked like rice, whole or broken, or ground into flour often mixed with wheat flour and used to make unleavened or leavened bread. The flour is also used to make various traditional dishes such as porridges, bread, and fermented products in recent years, foxtail millet has gained attention as a nutritious and gluten-free alternative to wheat and rice.
(Brink, M., 2006, National Academies of Sciences, 1996 Heuzé V., et al., 2015, PROSEEA, 2016)

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)
The species belongs to the Eleusine genus that comprises about 10 species. The species is believed to have originated in East Africa, particularly in the highlands of Ethiopia and Uganda. From its origin, it has spread to various parts of the world. It is now cultivated in several countries across Asia and Africa. 
E. coracana is a grass usually 0.5-1 m high. Flowers: Head dirty green and branched into 5-7 spikes (fingers) usually 5-10 cm long. Fruits: Grain usually reddish brown, dark brown or occasionally cream.
Finger millet thrives in hot conditions, with optimal temperatures of 18-27°C, and can tolerate cooler climates than other millets. It grows at altitudes between 500-2400 m and requires well-distributed rainfall ranging from 500-1000 mm. Dry weather is necessary during harvest for grain drying. It can adapt to various soils but performs best on reddish-brown lateritic soils with good drainage and water holding capacity, containing iron and aluminum. Finger millet also tolerates waterlogging and has a superior ability to utilize rock phosphate compared to other cereals.
Fingermillet is a staple food in many African and Asian countries. It is considered an important famine crop because the grain stores extremely well stored for lean years. The grains are ground into nutrient-rich flour for traditional dishes like porridge and flatbreads. The flour is often mixed with other flours (e.g from sorghum, cassava or maize) in these preparations. 
Finger millet is also used to make liquor ("arake" or "areki" in Ethiopia) and beer, which yields by-products used for livestock feeding. Finger millet grain is not widely used for livestock: not only is it primarily a food grain, but it is of lesser quality for livestock than maize, sorghum and pearl millet. Old stems have a silky lustre and are used as material for plaiting. 
(Maundu et al., 1999, De Wet, J.M.J., 2006, National Academies of Sciences, 1996,)

 

Millet Varieties

Varieties in Kenya

A lot of work has been done to identify improved varieties of millet to be grown under different ecological zones of Kenya. 
Some recommended varieties of finger millets and their characteristics (Kenya)

 

Finger Millet

© A.A.Seif, icipe

 

Variety	Optimal production altitude (masl)	Maturity (Months)	Grain colour	Potential grain yield (90 kg bags/acre)	Special attributes
"P 224"	1150-1750	3-4	Brown	10	Tolerant to lodging and blast
"Gulu E"	250-1500	4	Brown	8	-
"KAT/FMI"	250-1150	3	Brown	7	Drought tolerant. Tolerant to blast. High in calcium
"Lanet/FM1"	1750-2300	5-7	Brown	7	Tolerant to cold and drought

Examples of finger millet varieties in Uganda

All below listed varieties share the same maturity period of 100 days, potential grain yield of 2-3 t/ha, brown grain, resistant to blast, susceptible to lodging and good for food and brewing

• "PESE 1"
• "PESE 2"
• "SEREMI 1"
• "SEREMI 2"
• "SEREMI 3"

Some recommended varieties of pearl millets and their characteristics (Kenya)

Pearl Millet

© A.A.Seif, icipe

Examples of pearl millet varieties in Tanzania

• "Okoa" (Altitude recommended: 0-1300 m; grain yield: 2.0-2.5 t/ha; grain colour: grey; days to flowering: 87-92; resistant to Striga spp.; tolerant to ergot)
• "Shibe" (Altitude recommended: 0-1200 m; grain yield: 1.8-2.0 t/ha; grain colour: grey; days to flowering: 90-95; resistant to Striga spp.)

Proso Millet

© A. A.Seif, icipe

Proso and fox tail millets can be grown in all areas whereas "Gulu E" does best on coast and moist mid altitude. KAT/FM1 is recommended for semi-arid lowlands and Lanet/FM1 for cold semi arid highlands.

Ecological information

Millet is mostly grown in temperate and subtropical regions. It is adapted to conditions that are too hot and too dry, and to soils too shallow and poor for successful cultivation of other cereals. It is tolerant to a very wide temperature range but susceptible to frost. Cultivation occurs up to 3000 m altitude in the Himalayas. In Kenya millet is grown from 0 - 2400 m above sea level. Proso millet has one of the lowest water requirements of all cereals. An average annual rainfall of 200 - 450 mm is sufficient, of which 35 - 40% should fall during the growing period. Most soils are suitable for its cultivation, except coarse sand.

Agronomic aspects

Selection of healthy seeds, free from bird and insect damage and diseases, is important to produce vigorous seedlings that could fare well in case of attack by pests or diseases. Prepare seed for sowing by threshing it (if at all stored on the head) and removing all mixtures such as glumes, bits of the rachis and peduncle, etc. This can be done by winnowing and occasionally by sieving. These processes also remove light and small seeds. A fast, easy and efficient method of quality seed selection uses a 10% salt solution to separate good seeds from bad seeds. The salt solution enhances the flotation of light and damaged seeds, fungal spores and light foreign matter. The good and heavy seeds and pebbles drop to the bottom. The floating portion is decanted and discarded and the sunken portion subjected to flotation one or two more times, after which the good seeds at the bottom are rinsed with clean water to remove excess salt. This portion is then sun-dried. After drying, the pebbles are removed by hand picking (DFPV, Niger). 
Early land preparation is recommended. Millet requires a fine seedbed suitable for small grains, to ensure good germination, plant population density and effective weed control. If tractors or oxen are used to open up land for planting, it is advisable to harrow it after the first ploughing. When jembes (hand hoes) are used for land preparation, farmers are advised to break large clods to provide a smooth seedbed. Plant before or at the onset of rains by either drilling in the furrows made by oxen plough or tractor or by using a panga (cutlass) for hand planting in hills. 
Spacing and seed rate
If the population is too high at emergence, thin when plants are about 15 cm tall, 2 weeks after emergence. Seed rate (when planted in furrows):
•    Finger millet - 3 kg/ha
•    Pearl millet - 5 kg/ha
•    Fox tail millet - 4 kg/ha
•    Proso millet - 4 kg/ha
For sole cropping the following distances should be followed:
•    Pearl millet varieties: 15 cm between seeds and 60 cm between rows
•  Finger millet, foxtail and Proso millet: 10 cm between seeds and 30 cm between rows.
Husbandry
Millet benefits from intercropping with legumes such as green gram and cowpeas. It can also be rotated with legume crops to benefit from the soil improvement facilitated by these crops or intercropped with other non-cereal crops. Application of farmyard manure at 8-10 tons/ha is recommended in order to improve the soil organic matter content, moisture retention ability and soil structure. Phosphorous should be applied in the form of rock phosphate. Weeding should be done twice, first time 2-3 weeks after emergence and second weeding about two weeks later. 

Harvest, post-harvest practices and markets

Harvesting
Millet grains should be harvested as soon as they are physiologically mature about 2-4 months after sowing, when the grain has a moisture content of 14-15%. Millet do not mature uniformly, hence multiple stage harvesting could be required after the ears turn brown. First harvest is done when the ear of main shoot and 50% of ear turn brown. A week later the second harvest is done where rest of the head is removed. The second harvest contained green heads hence it is recommended to keep them under shade for a few days to hasten drying. Individual heads are cut off with a knife, leaving a few centimeters of stalk attached.
Avoid delayed harvesting, as the seed shatters easily. If millet is harvested during the rainy season with high relative humidity, the grain must be dried to 14% moisture content. In African households, millet is usually dried above the domestic fire. 
(KALRO, 2021, Kaume, R.N., 2006, PROSEA, 2016)
Post-harvest practices 
After harvesting the millet heads are piled in heaps for a few days to promote fermentation whose heat and hydrolysis makes the seeds easier to thresh. The panicles should be kept off the soil on raised platforms, mats, or trays while drying for threshing. The heads are threshed using conventional beating with sticks and grain is winnowed. Machine threshing is not common in developing countries. The threshed grain should be dried by spread the grain thinly on the drying surface to allow air to pass through it and turn the grain regularly to avoid overheating. Protect the grain from rain, insects, animals and dirt. The grain stores well for up to five years. Sometimes the grain is mixed with ash or slightly baked before storage. Because of its small size, the grain is barely susceptible to insect attack.
(KALRO, 2021, Kaume, R.N., 2006, PROSEA, 2016)

Value addition and markets 

Millet is commonly utilized within its local regions and, due to its rapid maturation, it can help bridge periods of scarcity before the main harvest of other cereal crops takes place. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), global millet production was estimated at 28.33 million metric tons in 2019, which increased to 30.08 million metric tons in 2021. India, Niger, and China are the largest millet producers in the world, accounting for more than 55.0% of global production. India is the largest producer of millet in the world. Production statistics for individual millet species are scarce because they are usually lumped with those of other millets. Pearl Millets however have the highest market share in the world mainly due to the high rate of consumption and the high rate of production.
(PROSEA, 2016, Kaume, R.N., 2006.

Nutrition value 

Millet, a group of small-seeded grains, boasts impressive nutritional value and numerous health benefits. The grains are rich in complex carbohydrates, millet's low glycemic index contributes to weight management and may assist in diabetes control. Its high fiber content supports digestive health by promoting regular bowel movements and aiding in the prevention of constipation
Millet is notably gluten-free, rendering it suitable for individuals with gluten sensitivities or celiac disease. Moreover, it contains an array of vitamins and minerals, including B-vitamins (such as niacin and thiamin), magnesium, phosphorus, and iron, which collectively contribute to optimal metabolic function, nerve health, bone strength, and red blood cell production. The presence of antioxidants in millet, including phenolic compounds, helps combat oxidative stress and reduce the risk of chronic diseases like heart disease and certain types of cancer. 
Millet is a high-energy, nutritious cereal. It is particularly recommended for children, lactating mothers, convalescents and the elderly. Some of the healthy benefits of millet includes; prevention of certain types of cancer, help control diabetes, offer a dietary option for people with Celiac disease, improve digestive health, build strong bones, promote red blood cell development, and boost energy and fuel production.
(Healthline (n.d)
Further reading
•    https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/what-is-millet#benefits
Table 1:Proximate nutritional value of 100g  edible portion

Source (Nutrient data): FAO/Government of Kenya. 2018. Kenya Food Composition Tables. Nairobi, 254 pp. http://www.fao.org/3/I9120EN/i9120en.pdf

^a Lewis, J. 2019. Codex nutrient reference values. Rome. FAO and WHO

^b NHS (refers to saturated fat)

^c https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/water/

^d British Heart Foundation

^e FDA

^f NIH

^g Mayo Clinic

^hWest African food composition table, https://www.fao.org/3/ca7779b/CA7779B.PDF

Nutritive Value per 100 g of edible Portion

*Percent Daily Values (DV) are based on a 2000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower, depending on your calorie needs.