Indigenous Plants

Introduction.

Ipomoea batatas is the sweet potato belonging to the family Convolvulaceae. The genus Ipomoea comprises over 500 species of flowering plants and Ipomoea batatas is one of the most economically important species within the genus. The sweet potato is native to the area from South Mexico through Central America to north-west South America. It has now been introduced to most countries in the tropics and other warm parts of the world. The plant exhibits high genetic variation and there are many different cultivars available. Some notable varieties in Africa include the orange-fleshed sweet potato, white-fleshed sweet potato, and purple-fleshed sweet potato. Sweet potato is a hardy crop that can grow in a wide range of soil types and climatic conditions. It is well adapted to hot and humid environments, making it an ideal crop for tropical regions. 
In Africa, sweet potato is primarily cultivated for its tubers, which are used as a staple food. Sweet potato leaves and young tender vines, however, are a popular vegetable in many African countries, particularly in East, Central, and West Africa. They can be prepared in various ways, including boiling, steaming, or stir-frying and served as a side dish. They can also be used in soups and stews or ground into a paste or powder. These versatile leaves are rich in nutrients such as vitamins A, B, and C, as well as minerals like iron, calcium, and potassium. In addition to their use as a vegetable for human consumption, sweet potato leaves and vines are also an excellent feed supplement for livestock due to their high protein content and richness in vitamins and minerals. The vines can also be used as green manure to enrich soil fertility. Furthermore, sweet potato leaves have been explored for their potential in biogas production.

General information

Ipomoea batatas is a perennial plant mainly grown as an annual crop. Stems are creeping slender vines that can grow up to 4 meters long. Leaves are green or purplish, heart-shaped and borne on long leaf stalks. Flowers are white or pale violet in colour. Roots are adventitious (arise from any point other than the main root). Tubers are produced in some of the roots and may vary in shape, colour and texture depending on the variety. The flesh of the tubers can be white, yellow, orange or purple, while their skin can be red, purple, brown, or white. Sweet potato is a highly variable crop with significant variation in morphological, physiological, and agronomic characteristics. (Heuzé et al, 2017). Some varieties are more preferred as vegetable. Green leaf types with narrow leaves are often more preferred.

Related species.
Ipomoea aquatica commonly known as the water spinach is a prostrate or ascending plant with a much-branched structure that is commonly found in wetlands. Stems are hollow, fleshy, and have white sap. When floating in water, they have hairy roots arising from nodes. Leaves are triangular to heart-shaped and can grow up to 15 cm long with a pointed apex. Flowers are tubular and mauve, purple or pink. In Africa, this species grows widely from West Africa east to the Horn of Africa and south to Namibia. It grows in wetlands including lake shores, swampy places, seasonally flooded depressions, marshy river banks and rice fields. In these habitats it may grow on mud or shallow water. It is common along the Nile Valley. Water spinach is primarily used as a leafy vegetable as it does not have an edible tuber. It is used as a vegetable in Tanzania, coastal Kenya and in northern Uganda. It is a popular leaf vegetable in the South and South-East Asian cuisines where it goes by the name Kangkong. Additionally, the plant is a good fodder for most animals. 
It is cultivated in South and South-East Asia. The plant can be propagated by rhizomes, stem runners, and possibly seeds. In Africa, it is mainly picked from the wild. The leaves of Ipomoea aquatica are rather slippery and are typically mixed with other leafy vegetables, such as cocoyam, pumpkin, Asystasia gangetica, okra, and cowpeas. During preparation, the leaf blade is usually separated from the leaf stalk and cooked for a few minutes.
(Maundu et al, 1999).

Ipomoea mombassana is a trailing plant that often climbs on grass and other plants. Stems are weak and hairy. Leaves are usually oval, heart-shaped and slightly hairy. Flowers are funnel-shaped, white with a purple centre in the corolla, occasionally mauve. This plant is widespread in Kenya and can also be found in Tanzania in grassland, disturbed bushland, and cultivated areas, mainly at elevations of 0-1,600 m. It is most commonly found at elevations of 0-1,300 m. It is a common weed in cultivation and can often be seen twining on other erect plants in cropland. It grows well in sandy or light clay soils.
The leaves of Ipomoea mombassana are used as a vegetable. The leaves may be cooked alone or mixed with other vegetables such as amaranth, Corchorus spp. and Oxygonum spp. Mixing the leaves with other vegetables lessens the slippery texture of the vegetable. Additionally, it is used as fodder during the rainy season. Ipomoea mombassana is a quite drought resistant and may be an important vegetable towards the end of the cropping season when most vegetables have dried. 
(Maundu et al, 1999).

Agronomic aspects 

Ecological information
Sweet potatoes thrive in well-drained soils that are moist but not waterlogged. Waterlogging can cause root rot. Temperature: Sweet potatoes are warm-season crops and require warm temperatures for optimum growth. The ideal temperature range for sweet potato cultivation is between 24-29°C. Soil: Sweet potatoes grow well in well-drained, sandy loam soils with good organic matter content. The soil pH range should be between 5.5-6.5. Acidic soils with a pH below 5.0 can lead to reduced growth and yield, while alkaline soils with a pH above 7.5 can lead to iron and manganese deficiencies.
Seed sources.
Sweet potatoes are mostly propagated through vegetative propagation using vine cuttings or tuber sprouts 

Use of stem cuttings:
Farmers obtain cuttings from an established crop before or just after the harvest of storage roots. The cuttings are either used to establish a maintenance field, or directly for planting the next sweet potato crop. Below are some factors to consider when using stem cuttings:
•    Care should be taken to select 'clean' planting material. This means choosing cuttings that are free of insects, soil, and any symptoms of viruses or fungal diseases.
•    Generally, the apical (tip) portion of the vine is better than the middle or basal portions. This portion is less likely to carry sweet potato weevils and fungal pathogens, and has been found to establish faster than other portions. 
•    Length of cutting is less important than the number of nodes. Typical size is 20-40 cm, with 5-8 nodes. The conditions of the field may influence the relationship between cutting length and crop development. Farmers should experiment to decide what length is best under their conditions.
•    Usually one-third to two-thirds of the cutting is buried. A minimum of 2-3 nodes, but up to about 8 nodes, is placed under the soil.
•    The delay between cutting and planting may affect yield depending on the storage conditions for the cuttings. Storing cuttings for one to two days in humid conditions may be beneficial, promoting rooting at the nodes. Longer storage may adversely affect establishment by exhaustion of the cuttings' energy reserves. To minimise losses, leaves should be stripped from the lower portion of the cutting, and bundles of cuttings wrapped in a wet cloth or sack and kept in a cool, shady place away from wind. If roots develop during storage, they should be planted carefully to minimise damage to the roots.
•    If planting material is to be maintained in a multiplication plot before planting of the next crop, it is recommended that plant cuttings be planted at approximately 15 x 20 cm spacing. New growth may be ready for cutting after 45 days.
Use of storage roots:
Storage roots are used when there are insufficient stem cuttings available, or when the level of pest and disease infestation is high so that few healthy vines are left. They may also be used in highly mechanized production, as the sprouts can be harvested mechanically from the seedbed. Healthy storage roots should be selected from plants that produced high yield. The roots are planted densely in a seedbed located away from other sweet potato crops. Roots are covered with about 3 cm of soil, and the bed covered with straw to help retain moisture. When the sprouts have grown long enough, they are cut near their base and planted directly in the field. To maximise the number of cuttings, remove the tips of the sprouts when they are about 20 cm long to promote branching.
Rapid seed multiplication:
When large amounts of cuttings are needed, rapid multiplication may be done. Although the merit of this practice has not been fully acknowledged by sweet potato growers, it can be the easiest way to produce large amount of planting materials. This method involves the following steps:
•    Cuttings of about 30 cm are taken from either established plants or sprouted storage roots. These are then cut into single node cuttings, with the leaf attached. The tip of the vine is discarded.
•    A seedbed is prepared with a mixture of loose, humus-rich soil and ash. The single-node cuttings are planted at a high density, with the stem section buried and the leaf upright.
•    The seedbed is regularly watered and is prevented from drying especially during the first week of establishment.
•    After about 2 weeks, when the seedlings have developed enough roots, they should be transplanted into the field. They should be removed from the seedbed with care to avoid damaging the roots. Transplanting should be done in the late afternoon to avoid excessive evaporation and wilting.
Husbandry 
Weed infestation during the first 2 months of growth poses a problem in stand development, and requires adequate control to ensure high yield. Thereafter, vigorous growth of the vines covers the ground effectively and smothers weeds. In the tropics, manual weeding is generally practised. 
Sweet potato responds well to fertilization, particularly if the land has been continuously cropped. However, fertilizer is seldom applied in the tropics. Manure or good compost should be incorporated to improve soil fertility. This is a common practice in smallholdings and traditional agriculture. Sweet potato is used in a wide variety of cropping systems around the world. Rotating sweet potato with other crops such as rice, legumes and maize is desirable to control diseases, pests and weeds. Intercropping sweet potato with other crops is very common in Africa.
(Ireta, L. M, 2013).
Vines may be planted on heaped soil or on ridges in a furrow system or just well-ploughed level field.

Harvest, post-harvest practices and markets

Sweet potato leaves are an excellent source of nutrients, and they can be harvested sustainably without harming the growth of the plant. It is recommended to harvest the leaves 45-90 days after planting and 1-2 times per month until the roots are ready for harvest. It is important not to harvest the leaves too frequently, as this can reduce root growth and result in less nutritious leaves.
When harvesting sweet potato leaves, it is best to use scissors or snips to cut off lengths of the vine, once the stems are at least a foot long. This will allow the plant to continue growing and producing new leaves. If you are growing sweet potatoes mainly for their leaves, it is important to plant them at a distance from each other so that they have enough space to grow and produce healthy leaves.

Nutritional value and recipes

Sweet potato leaves are a highly nutritious vegetable. They are an excellent source of minerals such as iron, calcium, and potassium. Iron is essential for the production of red blood cells, while calcium is necessary for healthy bones and teeth. Potassium helps regulate blood pressure and maintain proper fluid balance in the body. Sweet potato leaves are also rich in vitamins such as vitamin B and beta-carotene. These nutrients can vary depending on the variety and harvesting period. While sweet potato leaves contain oxalic acid, the levels are significantly lower than those found in spinach making them a safe and healthy option for consumption.
Sweet potato leaves are an excellent source of antioxidant polyphenols, including anthocyanins and phenolic acids. These compounds help protect the body from damage caused by free radicals and are superior to those found in many other commercial vegetables. Sweet potato leaves may improve digestion due to their high fiber content. They also contain compounds that promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria, which can further improve digestive health.
(Islam, S, 2014, Islam,S, 2006). 

Table 1: Approximate Nutritional composition for 100 grams of sweet potato leaves

Complimentary recipes 
Sweet potato leaves are a versatile ingredient that can be consumed in both raw and cooked forms. The leaves can be enjoyed raw in salads or smoothies or cooked as a substitute for other vegetables like spinach or turnip greens. To prepare, blanch in hot water or sauté with garlic and oil, cook in coconut milk, and serve with rice or pasta. Sweet potato leaves pair well with savory flavors enhancers like aromatics, meats, peppers, broccoli, mushrooms, and water chestnuts. 
1. Sweet potato leaves 
Congo recipe.

Ingredients
•    100 g sweet potato leaves
•    Salt to taste
•    2 tablespoonful of palm oil
•    100 g tomatoes 
•    50 g onions 
•    1 cup water
•    50 g (medium size) smoked fish/beef or dried salted fish 

Preparation
•    Peel out the skin of the main petiole and wash the leaves
•    Chop the leaves into small pieces 
•    Heat palm oil in a frying pan till it changes color to cream
•    Fry the chopped onions till they begin to turn golden brown
•    Add the chopped tomatoes and cook them till they are tender
•    Add the vegetables and stir-fry them for 5 minutes
•    Add the smoked fish or beef (optional)
•    Add salt to taste, stir then add water
•    Let this cook for 15 minutes then serve with fufu or rice 

Remarks
Varieties with small tubers are more popular for they produce a lot of leaves
Sweet potato leaves are soft and slightly slimy when cooked and have a mild taste.

2. Matembele (Tanzania recipe).

Ingredients
•    130 g sweet potato leaves
•    70 g tomatoes
•    50 g onion
•    1 lemon
•    ¼ cup groundnut or sesame flour
•    2 tablespoonful cooking oil
•    ¼ cup coconut milk
•    Salt to taste

Preparation
•    Sort and remove the thread on sweet potato stalks and then wash
•    Drain and cut if possible, into small pieces
•    Squeeze the lemon juice and sprinkle on it to avoid sliminess during cooking
•    Wash, peel and chop the tomatoes and onions
•    Fry the onions lightly, add tomatoes, salt and stir till soft
•    Add the sweet potato leaves, stir well and cover for 5-10 minutes. Simmer
•    Mix thoroughly the coconut milk and the groundnut flour, then add into the vegetables while stirring for 5 minutes
•    Season to taste and serve while hot as a relish

Variation
Use milk or cream instead of coconut milk
Use peanut butter instead of groundnut flour
Remark
The food is very tasty when coconut milk is used. When lemon juice is added it acquires a loose slimy nature.

3. Wimbia (Ipomoea mombassana)
Vegetable meal prepared among the Kamba community in Kitui, east Kenya.

Ingredients
•    100 g Wimbia leaves (Ipomoea mombassana)
•    Salt to taste
•    2 tablespoonsful of oil
•    100 g tomatoes 
•    50 g onions 
•    1 cup water

Preparation
•    Peel out the skin of the main petiole and wash the leaves
•    Chop the leaves into small pieces 
•    Heat cooking oil in a frying pan till it changes color to cream
•    Fry the chopped onions till they begin to turn golden brown
•    Add the chopped tomatoes and cook them till they are tender
•    Add the vegetables and stir-fry them for 5 minutes
•    Add the smoked fish or beef (optional)
•    Add salt to taste, stir then add water
•    Let this cook for 15 minutes then serve with Ugali, rice or chapati

Servings/
Can serve 6 people 

Remarks
Ipomoea mombassana leaves are soft and slightly slimy when cooked and have a mild taste

Introduction

Pumpkin is the name given to a group of widely cultivated vegetable plant species in the genus Curcubita and family Cucurbitaceae. The family is of great significance to humans due to its economically important fruits and vegetables. Among the most important genera in the family are Cucurbita (squash, pumpkin, zucchini or courgette, and some gourds). The genus Curcubita includes several other species that are significant in Africa, such as Curcubita pepo, C. moschata and C. ficifolia. These species are cultivated around the world for their edible fruits and leafy vegetables used in a variety of dishes across the continent.
Pumpkins are native to the Americas but are now widely grown in many parts of the world, including the tropical and subtropical regions, where it thrives in warm and humid conditions. It is grown in a variety of soils, but it does best in well-drained soils that are rich in organic matter. Pumpkin is an important vegetable crop in Africa, where it is grown both for its fruit and leaves. The fruit is used in a variety of dishes, including soups, stews, and pies. The seeds are also edible and are often roasted and eaten as a snack. The leaves of the plant are also highly nutritious and are used as a leafy vegetable in many African countries.
Pumpkin leaves are rich in vitamins A and C, iron, calcium, and protein, making them a valuable source of nutrition, especially in areas where access to animal protein is limited. The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked, and they are often used in soups, stews, and other dishes. In some parts of Africa, the leaves are dried and ground into a powder, which is then used as a seasoning.
(Grubben, G.J.H. & Ngwerume, F., 2004, Long., 2015)

Species accounts

Cucurbita moschata is an annual climbing plant with stems growing to a length of up to 5 metres. These stems tend to sprawl over the ground, though they also climb into the surrounding vegetation where they support themselves by means of tendrils. Leaves: large, lobed, and covered with soft hairs, sometimes with white markings often disappearing as the leaves age. Flowers: solitary, unisexual, lemon yellow to deep orange; sepals free. Fruits: may be of varying shapes and colour - globose to ovoid to cylindrical and may weigh up to 10 kg. It  may be green to dark green often covered with grey-white stripes, changing to light green or cream with age. Flesh: yellow to orange, many-seeded; fruit stalk enlarged at apex. Seed: flattened, usually white. The fruit is ideal for roasting and in soups. Cucurbita moschata is the most heat tolerant Cucurbita species and the most widely cultivated in tropical Africa. It is most probably cultivated in all countries of tropical Africa.
C. moschata is commonly used as a leafy vegetable, where the young leaves and shoots are cooked and eaten as a green vegetable. Its fruit can be cooked in a variety of ways, including baking, roasting, and steaming. Its flesh can be used in soups, stews, casseroles and in pies and desserts (Grubben & Ngwerume, 2004).

Related species used as leafy vegetables
Curcubita maxima is an annual vine climbing by lateral, 2–5-branched tendrils, strongly branched. It is a fast-growing plant that can reach up to 10 meters in length. Stems: rounded stems that are long running and softly pubescent. Leaves: alternate ad simple lobed leaves that are rough to the touch. Flowers: yellow flowers of the plant are quite large and showy. Fruit: large, globose to ovoid or obovoid berry that weighs up to 50 kg with a wide range of colors (orange, green etc.), has a thick, hard rind enclosing the pulp and seeds.Seeds: flattened, white to pale brown, surface smooth to somewhat rough, margin prominent. Many cultivars of C. maxima that exhibit various morphological and physiological characteristics exist across in Europe and Africa. The plant prefers warm temperatures and well-drained soil and is often grown in gardens and small farms. 
C. maxima is used as a food source, the mature fruits, leaves, flowers and seeds are used as vegetables. In addition to being grown for its fruit, the species is also grown for its leaves, which are highly nutritious and have a variety of culinary uses. The leaves are regarded as a bit coarse and of lesser quality than those of Cucurbita moschata, although this disappears in cooking. They are used fresh and in some locations dried for use during the off-season. Curcubita maxima is native to South America, perhaps the area around Argentina and Bolivia. It has been introduced into most tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world. In Cameroon, Nigeria and other western African countries, seeds are commonly roasted and salted, or ground into a thick paste that is mixed with vegetables in cooking.

Cucurbita pepo is an annual, scandent herb, climbing by lateral, 3–4-branched tendrils, stro.ngly branched, or with bushy habit and then often without tendrils; Stems: angular and often grooved, prickly hairy. Leaves: alternate, simple, without stipules. Flowers are yellow to orange and unisexual. Fruit: are large, globose to ovoid, obovoid, cushion-shaped or cylindrical berry, weighing up to 50 kg when mature, with a wide range of colours, with small, raised, wartlike spots or smooth, sometimes deeply grooved. Flesh: soft, whitish to yellow or orange, many-seeded. Seeds: obvoid, flattened, usually white 
Principal features distinguishing Cucurbita pepo from other cultivated Cucurbita species are more deeply lobed leaves with silvery markings, prickly hairy stems and leaves and fruit stalk hard and pentagonal in cross-section. Cucurbita pepo tolerates monthly average day temperatures of 18–28°C, but growth is best when day temperatures are between 24°C and 29°C and night temperatures between 16°C and 24°C, as found at high altitudes in East Africa or at higher latitudes. Production is mostly restricted to the beginning of the dry season, when temperatures are relatively low and the pressure of aphids less intense. .C. pepo is less adapted to tropical lowlands than C. moschata, especially during the rainy season. Curcubita pepo; The young leaves and shoots are used as a potherb e.g. in south-western Nigeria, but in general the leaves of Cucurbita moschata are preferred, being less coarse. Male flowers of courgette are sometimes used to make fritters. ‘Vegetable spaghetti’ cultivars are a speciality; when cooked the flesh of mature fruits resolves into thin strands which look like spaghetti. Cucurbita pepo seeds are edible in the same way as those of other cucurbits, either raw or roasted. Cucurbita pepo is less heat resistant than Cucurbita moschata and for that reason less appropriate for tropical Africa, yet it is grown on a limited scale in all countries (Messiaen & Fagbayide, 2004)

Cucurbita ficifolia- also known as fig- leaf gourd is a monoecious, herbaceous, and woody perennial vine with a taproot that can grow up to 2 meters long. Stems: has numerous runners, up to 10 meters long, and is prickly or spiny, hard, and smoothly 5-angled to rounded. The tendrils are long and branched. Leaves: are simple, alternate, and circular-ovate to nearly reniform in outline, measuring 18-25 cm in diameter. Flowers: are solitary, yellow to light orange, up to 7.5 cm in diameter. The calyx and corolla are campanulate with a short tube. Fruits: globular to cylindrical, measuring 15-50 cm in length. It is white to green with white stripes and blotches, and the rind is smooth and hard. Flesh: is white, coarse, tough, fibrous, and rather dry. The fruit stalk is hard, round to 5-angled, without cork development, and not or only slightly enlarged at the point of fruit attachment. Seed; is flattened, oblong-ellipsoidal, measuring 1.5-2.5 cm in length. It is hard, without a spongy epidermis, and is black or sometimes light buff-colored.
Fig-leaf gourd, is mainly grown for its large fruits. The tender immature fruits are used like summer squash or cucumber The flesh of mature fruits is impregnated with sugar for preparation of a candy or jam, mature fruits are fermented for an alcoholic beverage, male flowers and buds are used in soups, stews and salads, and the raw or roasted seeds are eaten as a snack food. The leaves are edible and are consumed as vegetable occasionally mashed in a mixture of maize, pulses, green bananas or Irish potato in Kenyan communities (Maundu et al, 1999).

Ecological information

Pumpkins and squashes are grown in the tropics from lowlands up to altitudes of about 2500 meters above sea level. They are adapted to mean temperatures of 18-27 degrees Celsius. C. maxima is the most tolerant of low temperatures, C. moschata the least, with C. pepo intermediate. C. maxima and C. pepo have long been cultivated in temperate regions. Butternut appreciates shade in very hot conditions, shading can be obtained when intercropped with other crops or grown under fruit trees. 
Pumpkins and squashes do very well in medium to heavy applications of compost or well- decomposed manure. They are cultivated on almost any fertile, well-drained soil with a neutral or slightly acid reaction (pH 5.5 to 7). Pumpkins are drought-tolerant, requiring relatively little water, and are sensitive to waterlogging. Excessive humidity is harmful to pumpkins because of the development of leaf diseases, therefore no pumpkin species does well in the humid tropics. 

Agronomic aspects 

Seed sources and preparation.
Pumpkins are grown from seeds that can be purchased from seed companies, garden centres, or harvested from mature pumpkins. Before planting, it is important to prepare the seeds properly by cleaning and drying them. To do this, remove the seeds from the Pumpkin and separate the pulp from the seeds. Wash and clean the seeds thoroughly to remove any pulp or debris. Lay seeds out for an initial dryging in a cool and dry place for several days, sort through the seeds to remove the bad ones.

Planting
Pumpkin seeds may either be sown in containers and transplanted to the field when they are 10 cm high. The seeds can also be planted directly in the site where they will mature. Pumpkins are usually planted in hills and direct seeding of 2 to 3 seeds per hole about 2,5 cm deep and later thin to one plant per hill is advisable. Spacing varies with variety and vine size – the trailing types are planted at distances of 2-3 m either way; the seed requirement is 2 to 3 kg/ha.

Husbandry
Sole cropping is sometimes used for commercial production. Pumpkins are also planted in home gardens or mixed with field crops such as maize. Cultural practices needed to improve growth and development include the removal of growing tips (in trailing varieties) to check growth, and the bagging of fruits in paper to protect against fruit fly and other pests. Fruit setting may be stimulated by manual pollination. Pumpkin fruits may rot when in contact with moist soil, cutting grass or leaves and placing beneath the fruit will prevent rotting.

Harvest, post-harvest practices and markets

a.    Harvesting 
Pumpkins are harvested when mature in a once-over harvest or in several rounds, about 90 to 120 days after planting depending on variety When grown as leaf vegetable, usually the third and fourth leaves are harvested, while the tip and second leaves are left to grow. Young leaves and shoots are picked when needed. The leaf harvest may start 6 weeks after sowing and may be continued for at least 2 months with one harvest per week. Care should be taken that one does not tread on the stems. Sometimes the tips are removed to promote branching. Occasionally flowers and young immature fruits are harvested for consumption. Pumpkin leaves can be harvested year-round in warm climates or during the summer and early fall in temperate areas (Grubben, G.J.H. & Ngwerume, F., 2004).

b.    Post harvest practices
Once harvested the leaves are tied into desired bunches by the stalks and stored in an airy place. Leaves could be moistened to keep them fresh longer. A wire mesh shelf is recommended to spread the bunches out so that they do not lie on each other. When drying the leaves, the young leaves are cleaned off foreign material and washed. These are then placed on a clean surface to dry under a shade. This ensures that the leaves stay green and keep their nutrients. They are then stored in an air tight container or clean polythene bag. (Grubben, G.J.H. & Ngwerume, F., 2004).
c.    Markets
Pumpkin leaves are widely sold in the local markets and in southern Africa the leaves and the flowers are often sold in dried form.

Nutritional value and recipes 

Pumpkin leaves are highly nutritious and are a good source of essential nutrients that support human health. The leaves are rich in calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and manganese. Calcium is essential for bone health and muscle function, while iron is necessary for oxygen transport and the prevention of anemia. Magnesium is involved in numerous biochemical reactions in the body, potassium is crucial for maintaining proper heart function and fluid balance, and manganese contributes to various metabolic processes. 
Pumpkin leaves are particularly rich in antioxidants, such as beta-carotene, which is a precursor of vitamin A, and vitamin C, both of which help protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. They are also a good source of dietary fiber, which helps to promote digestive health, reduce inflammation, and maintain a healthy weight. Consuming pumpkin leaves regularly can also help promote weight loss, and improve overall health and wellbeing. These leaves can be cooked and added to soups, stews, and stir-fries, or eaten raw in salads or smoothies.

Table 1: Approximate nutritional composition of 100 grams of Pumpkin leaves

Source (Nutrient data): FAO/Government of Kenya. 2018. West African food composition table (Stadlmayr, 2012)
$ Draining the water several times leaches away water soluble nutrients significantly.
a Lewis, J. 2019. Codex nutrient reference values. Rome. FAO and WHO
b NHS (refers to saturated fat)
c https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/water/
d British Heart Foundation
e FDA
f NIH
g Mayo Clinic

Complementary recipes.
1.    Fried kahurura.
Kenya recipe. (Source: IPGRI, 2006)
Ingredients
•    1 bunch Kahurura leaves (Cucurbita ficifolia)
•    250 ml water
•    Onions (50 g)
•    2 tablespoonful cooking oil
•    Tomatoes (80 g)

Preparation

1. Peel the outer membrane off the leaf stalks, and then wash the leaves without cutting off the stalks. The stalks are said to be rich in nutrients
2. Chop the vegetables together with the stalks
3. Bring water to boil, add vegetables and boil for 3 minutes. (You may blanch the vegetable instead of boiling)
4. Heat oil, add the dicedonions and fry them lightly
5. Add the vegetables and stir for a minute
6. Add the diced tomatoes and cook for 2 minutes
7. Add salt to taste then stir
8. Serve with ugali
9. Yields 4 servings

Remarks
This vegetable has a reputation as a drought food among the Kikuyu some people however find the leaves bitter. It is very high in beta-carotene, iron, folate, and calcium it is used in mashed food preparation of maize, beans, and potatoes.

2.    Isosek 
Kenya recipe. (Source: IPGRI, 2006)

Ingredients
•    40 g pumpkin leaves (Isosek)
•    200 g green maize
•    200 g irish potatoes
•    5 tablespoonfuls cooking oil
•    50 g onions 
•    60 g tomatoes 
•    Salt to taste

Preparation

1. Do not cut off the leaf stalks, instead peel off the outer covering from the leaf stalks. 
2. Wash the pumpkin leaves and boil them for 3 minutes
3. Boil the maize, 20 minutes for soft maize and 40 minutes for dried maize. Hard maize can be soaked overnight to soften
4. Peel and clean the potatoes, then add them to the maize to boil till nearly soft 
5. Add the pumpkin leaves and salt, and then boil the food till the potatoes are soft..
6. Ensure all the water is evaporated
7. In a separate cooking pot, fry the chopped onions in oil till lighlty golden brown
8. Add the chopped tomatoes and stir them till they are soft
9. Add the cooked potatoes, vegetables and the maize
10. Stir everything and cook for about 5 minutes
11. Using a wooden spoon, mash everything together, until evenly mixed
12. Serve with fresh/sour milk, tea or desired stew
13. Yields 5-6 servings

Remarks
This recipe can be varied by mixing the pumpkin leaves with Nderema (vine spinach -Basella alba).
Add a teaspoonful of butter to flavour (optional).

3.    Pumpkin imifino / Squash Leaves 
South Africa recipe . (Source: IPGRI, 2006)

Ingredients
•    100 g of pumpkin leaves 
•    Pumpkin fruit (150 g), diced
•    1 litre of water
•    1 kg coarsely ground maize meal
•    1 tablespoonful salt

Preparation

1. Mix the young fruit and chopped leaves 
2. Boil the water
3. Add the leaves and fruit to the water and cook till leaves are soft (water becomes greenish), about 10 minutes
4. Add salt then add the maize meal and stir well
5. Cook 5 minutes and stir
6. Simmer for 15 minutes while covered
7. Serve alone as a relish

4.    Umathwane dish 
South Africa dish. (Source: Van Rensburg, 2006).

Ingredients
•    200 g growing points of pumpkin leaves (leafy stems)
•    2 young pumpkin fruits
•    Water to cover the growing points and pumpkins
•    Coarse maize meal to taste
•    ½ -1 teaspoonful of salt

Preparation

1. Harvest the young growing points, remove the twisting parts
2. Peel the skin with the hairs. Do not use the flowers. Wash.
3. Chop growing points finely and pumpkin fruits into small pieces 
4. Place in the pot, add 2 litres of water and cook for 20-30 minutes or until soft
5. Add the coarse maize meal
6. Add ½ -1 teaspoonful of salt
7. Stir 3 times till the mixture is smooth
8. Simmer for 20 minutes
9. Serve alone

5.    Majani ya maboga na bamia 
Tanzania recipe. (Source: IPGRI, 2006).
Ingredients
•    140 g pumpkin leaves
•    100 g okra
•    90 g tomatoes
•    ½ cup groundnut flour
•    1 cup water
•    Salt to taste

Preparation

1. Select the tender leaves of the pumpkin, wash and chop finely
2. Wash, peel and chop the tomatoes
3. Wash and chop the okra
4. Prepare groundnut flour
5. Boil the water and add all the ingredients to cook for 10-15 minutes while covering the pan. Simmer 
6. Stir well until the mixture becomes thick like porridge or slimy
7. Season to taste and serve while hot as a relish

6.    Chibwabwa (IPGRI, 2006)
Zambia recipe. (Source: IPGRI, 2006).

Ingredients
•    150 g (3 ½ bundles) pumpkin leaves
•    150 g (1 big) tomato
•    50 g (1 medium) onion    
•    15 ml (1 tablespoonful) cooking oil
•    Salt to taste
•    ¼ cup water

Preparation

1. Remove stalks from leaves, wash leaves and chop them into small pieces
2. Add salt to the water and bring to boil
3. Add the vegetables; boil for 4 minutes then drain. Immediately place them in cold water then drain and cut them. (Do not cut the vegetables before blanching)
4. In a separate saucepan, heat the cooking oil, add the chopped onions and fry them till they begin to turn golden brown
5. Add the chopped tomatoes then vegetables; allow cooking for 5 minutes then mix
6. Serve with Nshima

Remarks
Blanching vegetables before frying is a common way of making them soft, cook faster and retain the green colour while retaining most of the nutrients
Blanching can be done for most vegetables.

Introduction

Corchorus olitorius (Jute mallow) is a plant species classified under family Malvaceae and the genus Corchorus. This genus has about 40-100 species of flowering plants distributed in tropical and subtropical regions from Asia to Africa. In Africa, Corchorus is represented by over a dozen species, most of which may be used as leafy vegetables. The most important is Corchorus olitorius found nearly all over the continent. Other significant species include C. trilocularis, C. tridens and C. aestuans which are often tolerated in crops field. Corchorus olitorius has various uses, with its leaves and young stems being consumed as a leafy vegetable. The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked; used fresh in salads, cooked as a side vegetable, or made into soup. The cooked jute mallow leaves are mucilaginous, and dried leaves can be used as a thickener in soups or brewed as a tea. Due to its slimy nature, the vegetable is usually combined with other coarser vegetables like spider plant, slender leaf and cowpeas to enhance their palatability. 
In West Africa, immature fruits of Jute Mallow are referred to as 'bush okra' and can be dried and ground into powder for use in soups during the dry season. In Zambia and other southern African countries, soda and salt are added to the cooking process to further enhance the slippery consistency of the final relish. The bark and root of Jute Mallow have medicinal properties, with root scrapings used to treat toothache and a root decoction as a tonic. An infusion from the leaves is taken against constipation, and are used as a purgative and febrifuge. Corchorus is also used as a laxative.
Jute mallow also has industrial uses, with fibre obtained from the stem of jute mallow varieties developed for that purpose used to make rope and jute bags. Jute has been the most widely used packaging fibre for more than 100 years because of its strength and durability, low production costs, ease of manufacturing, and availability in large and uniform quantities.
(Maundu et al., 2009, Fondio, L. & Grubben, G.J.H., 2011).

Species account

Corchorus olitorius is a tall, erect, woody herb that typically grows to a height of 0.5 to 1.2 meters, although it may reach 2.5 meters in cultivation. It has a strongly branched structure with elongate leaves that have serrated margins. The plant produces yellow flowers and grey-black seeds, and its fruit is a short-stalked, cylindrical capsule that splits into 5 parts. The seeds are greyish black and angled. The plant species exhibits a notable level of diversity, comprising numerous distinct varieties that are cultivated for their unique characteristics. These characteristics include variations in leaf size, shape, and colour, as well as variations in the quality and quantity of fibre produced. The Sudan type has an extremely irregular leaf margin with protrusions. The species' diverse range of properties can be attributed to its extensive cultivation and adaptation to various environmental conditions (Maundu et al., 1999, AVRDC 2016).

Related species 

1.    Corchorus trilocularis is a typically erect, branched herb with ovate or broad leaves that have serrated margins. The plant produces yellow flowers and slender, long pod-like capsules, which are usually straight or slightly curved and split into 3-4 valves. C. trilocularis is widespread throughout tropical Africa and can also be found in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Australia. In Africa, it occurs from Mauritania and Cape Verde in the west to South Africa in the south, and from Somalia, Comoros, Madagascar, and Mauritius in the east, with many recorded sightings in between. It is a common species in most parts of Kenya, found in open Acacia bushland, grassland, cultivated areas, flood plains, edges of marshy places, and near dams and lakes. It can grow at elevations of up to 2,400 meters and is adapted to a range of soil types, including sandy alluvial, black cotton, sandy, or clay soils. C. trilocularis is used for a variety of purposes in different parts of the world. In Africa, it is often consumed as a leafy vegetable or used as a source of fibre for making ropes, baskets, and mats. In some areas, the plant is also used for medicinal purposes, including the treatment of malaria, stomach pains, and diarrhoea. (Maundu et al., 1999, Schippers, R.R., 2004).

2.    Corchorus tridens is a herbaceous annual erect or spreading herb that grows to a height of 1 m, but usually much shorter. The stem is reddish with alternate leaves that are narrowly ovate to lanceolate or elliptical in shape, sparsely pubescent, and usually pale green. The fruit is a slender cylindrical capsule up to 4 cm long and 2 mm wide that dehisces by three valves and has three small spreading horns at the apex. Corchorus tridens is common in tropical Africa, as well as Nepal, Pakistan, India, and Northern Australia. It is used as a vegetable, both gathered from the wild and grown in home gardens, and has some importance in Benin, Cameroon, Kenya, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, and South Africa. (Mnzava, N.A., 2004, Achigan et al., 2010, Ken fern., 2021).

3.    Corchorus aestuans: commonly known as ""West African Jute" is an annual herb that grows up to a height of 1-2 meters. The species can be distinguished by several unique characteristics. The plant's leaves have serrated margins arranged alternately. At the base, the leaves have three veins, which distinguish them from other species. The plant produces small clusters of yellow flowers, typically 1-3 in number that are positioned opposite the leaves.
The plant species is widely distributed in tropical Africa, from Senegal to Ethiopia and Tanzania, and is commonly found in open woodlands, savannas, and disturbed habitats such as roadsides and fields. In East Africa, it grows in areas with an annual rainfall of 600-1000 mm
In West Africa, the leaves and stems are used as a vegetable to a lesser extent compared to Corchorus olitorius. This plant has various uses in traditional African medicine, where the leaves are used to treat dysentery, fever, and headaches. The roots and stem bark are used as a laxative and for the treatment of gonorrhoea and urethral discharges. Furthermore, its fibre is utilized to make ropes, twines, and mats. The plant also serves as a source of green manure, which improves soil fertility. (N’danikou & Achigan, 2011)

4.    Corchorus pseudo-olitorius is a spreading herbaceous annual plant that grows to a height of about 1 m, but usually much shorter. Leaves are long and narrow to nearly oval and may be up to 10 cm longand 3 cm wide and often with a pair of basal protrusions (setae). Flowers are borne in threes or less. The fruit is a slender cylindrical capsule up to 4 cm long and 2 mm wide that dehisces by three valves and has three small spreading horns at the apex. Corchorus pseudo-olitorius is found along the coast of East Africa from Tanzania through Kenya to Somalia and also in India and Pakistan. In these areas it may be found in seasonally wet areas and also during the rainy season usually at an elevation of under 600 m. It is used as a vegetable, both gathered from the wild and grown in home gardens.

Ecological information

Corchorus prefers warm humid weather and does not tolerate cold weather. The optimum temperature is about 25°C to 32°C. Jute mallow performs best in areas with an annual rainfall of 600 – 2000 mm per year. Jute mallow prefers well-drained rich loam soils though it can grow in a wide range of soils. The optimum pH is 4.5 to 8.2. It does not do well under shade.

Agronomic aspects

Land preparation
Land is tilled to a fine tilth because of the small size of seeds. This also creates the friable texture needed by fragile roots of the young plants. The soil should have adequate organic matter, which not only adds nutrients to the soil but also improves its structure, thereby increasing its water holding capacity. The soil and the manure need to be mixed thoroughly.

Planting 
Jute mallow is easily propagated from seeds. Farmers can harvest their own seeds from a few plants kept for that purpose in their farms until fruit maturity. To avoid dormancy, seeds should not be sown within four months of harvesting. If seed dormancy is an issue, heat treatment can be employed as a solution. To do this, place the seeds in a cloth bag and immerse it in simmering water for 5-10 seconds. Then, subject the bag to a second "shock" by placing it in cold water for 5-15 minutes. Afterward, dry the seeds in the shade for up to one day. This method can effectively break dormancy and improve seed germination. Treated seeds need to be sown immediately for the most uniform seedlings germination. Seeds should be mixed with sand or soil in a 1:10 ratio for even distribution at sowing. Broadcasting is not recommended as it causes seed waste. For sowing in rows, a spacing of 50cm x drill is used. Seeds are sown directly and covered with a thin layer of soil.
Well-decomposed cattle manure is applied at the rate of about 3-4 kg/m² if broadcasting, or 1 kg/m² when sowing in rows. If using chicken manure, use ½ - ¼ of the amount of cattle manure. Four to five weeks after germination, seedlings about 15cm tall should be thinned until a spacing of 10cm from one plant to another is achieved. Some of the plants thinned can be transplanted, 3 weeks after sowing, into holes dug at 30cm x 20cm apart and 6 inches deep. A seed rate of 2.5kg/ha is used. Seeds should be sown just before the rains when the soil is warm. Jute mallow seed can be sown directly on prepared land either as a monocrop or intercropped with other crops.
(AVRDC & IPGRI., 2006, Fondio, L. & Grubben, G.J.H., 2011).

Cropping systems
Most farmers consider the combination of Corchorus with staple food crops as a profitable means of early revenue generation whilst waiting for other crops to mature. Corchorus is compatible for planting with many staple crops, but it has low competitive ability when combined with vegetables. It may be found together with many different species of vegetables in peri-urban gardens and combinations with staple crops are uncommon. Companion crops are selected without any consideration for disease and pest reactions and the crop’s nutrient demands. Farmers may plant tomato, Celosia and Corchorus together, all of which are highly susceptible to nematode attack.
Mixed cropping by means of alternate rows with different species could be beneficial for both crops. Some farmers grow one row of amaranth followed by a row of Corchorus. Such mixed cropping with amaranth will be useful to reduce the eelworm population normally encountered in a Corchorus crop. Jew’s mallow can be planted together with staple crops but it has a low competitive ability when combined with vegetables especially when crops like tomatoes are included which are similarly susceptible to nematode attack. Intercropping with maize or beans does not significantly reduce the vegetative yield of Corchorus.

Harvest, post-harvest practices and markets

a.    Harvesting 
The jute mallow plants grow quickly and are ready for the first cutting in about 60-70 days. The first harvest by cutting shoots 20-30 cm long may take place 4-6 weeks after transplanting at a height of 10-20 cm above the ground. This cutting stimulates the development of side shoots. Subsequently every 2-3 weeks a cutting may take place, in total 2-8 cuttings. For a once-over harvest from a direct sown crop the plants are uprooted or cut at ground level when they are 30-40 cm tall, 3-5 weeks after emergence, and before fruit development. The plants are bundled for marketing. In intercropping systems, farmers tend to harvest at irregular intervals. Wild Jew's mallow is picked from the vegetation when required, usually for home consumption. Different varieties have different growth habits. Cultivars with rapid early growth are suitable for harvesting by uprooting, while late-maturing cultivars may be more amenable to ratoon cropping. (AVDRC & IPGRi., 2006, Fondio, L. & Grubben, G.J.H., 2011)

b.    Post-Harvest Management.
Post-harvest losses can be severe when the crop is handled poorly during harvest or after that. Shelf life of 1 or 2 days is possible when moist conditions together with low temperatures are maintained. If cooled to 20ºC, it can be kept for about one week in cold storage for several weeks. If the leaves are dried and pounded to powder, the product can be kept for half a year. Harvesting should be done late in the evening if the product is to be marketed the following day or very early in the morning if it is to be sold the same day. The vegetable is tied into bunches and placed on a wire mesh where it will not be stacked on top of each other and will have sufficient air circulation. Jute stems are retted in water for a period of (8- ) 15-20(-30) days to free the fibres from the bark. When retting is complete, the fibres are striped manually from the stems, subsequently washed and dried, and then graded and packed. The leaves may be dried and stored for later use. Preservation is done by sun-drying. The leaves may be dried and stored for up to one year. (AVRDC & IPGRI., 2006 Fondio, L. & Grubben, G.J.H., 2011).

Value addition and markets 

Jew’s mallow is one of the leading leafy vegetables in many African countries and much cultivated and traded. No statistical data on production or marketing are available. International trade with neighbouring countries occurs, but is not registered. In Europe, Jew’s mallow is sold in powder form as a Lebanese product, under its Arab name ‘meloukhia’. The world jute production (combined data from Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis) has been stable over the past 40 years. In the period 1997-2001 it averaged 2.76 million tonnes of fibre per year. India and Bangladesh together produced more than 90% of the total (AVRDC & IPGRI., 2006).

Nutritional value and recipes

Jute mallow is a highly nutritious vegetable, rich in several essential nutrients. It contains a significant amount of dietary fibre, which aids in digestion and helps maintain bowel regularity. It is also low in calories, making it a great choice for those looking to manage their weight.
Additionally, jute mallow contains minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, and potassium. Calcium is essential for strong bones and teeth, iron is necessary for oxygen transport in the body, magnesium is involved in various biochemical reactions, and potassium helps maintain proper heart function and fluid balance.
Jute mallow is an excellent source of vitamins and minerals. It is particularly rich in vitamin C, which is essential for a healthy immune system and collagen production. It also provides good amounts of vitamin A, which is important for eye health, and vitamin K, which plays a vital role in blood clotting and bone health. The leaves also contain six different antioxidants that help protect the body against damage caused by harmful free radicals. Antioxidants have been associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and age-related macular degeneration. The leaves are also a rich source of folic acid. Folacin deficiency results in megaloblastic anaemia, which is prevalent among pregnant women in many developing countries (AVRDC & IPGRI., 2006).

Table 1: Approximate composition and level of nutrients in raw and cooked Jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius)

Source (Nutrient data): FAO/Government of Kenya. 2018. Kenya Food Composition Tables. Nairobi, 254 pp. http://www.fao.org/3/I9120EN/i9120en.pdf
$ Draining the water several times leaches away water soluble nutrients significantly.
a Lewis, J. 2019. Codex nutrient reference values. Rome. FAO and WHO
b NHS (refers to saturated fat)
c https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/water/
d British Heart Foundation
e FDA
f NIH
g Mayo Clinic

Complimentary recipes
Jute mallow is an important leafy vegetable in many countries. The leaves and tender stems are eaten boiled, stew, stir-fried, or in soup. It is eaten with starchy foods like ugali. Sticky leaf mass is used as vegetarian spread. Leaf and tender stems are rich in vitamins A, C, E, B2, folic acid, calcium, iron and protein. Jute mallow is often mixed with cowpea leaves to soften the later especially when the leaves are mature. 

a.    Fried Mlenda (Mgunda)

Ingredients
•    100 g Jute mallow leaves
•    40 g onion
•    50 g tomatoes
•    3 tablespoonfuls cooking oil
•    ½ cup coconut milk or fresh milk
•    ½ cup groundnut flour
•    4 tablespoonfuls of lemon juice
•    Salt to taste

Preparation

1. Select the tender leaves wash and chop finely. Squeeze the lemon juice and sprinkle on it
2. Wash, peel and chop the tomatoes
3. Clean, wash and chop the onion
4. Fry the onions lightly, add tomatoes and stir till soft
5. Add chopped Jute mallow leaves and stir well, cover the pan for 5-10 minutes in order to boil. Simmer
6. Add milk and stir for 5 minutes
7. Season to taste and serve while hot as a relish

Remark
The vegetable has a slight lemon taste.
It is not slimy because of the addition of lemon juice

b. Jute Mallow with roasted groundnuts
Cameroon dish
Ingredients
• 1 bundle jute mallow leaves
• 2 cups (400 g) groundnuts
• 6 smoked fish
• 2 tomatoes
• 1 large onion, 1 clove garlic, two yellow peppers
• 1 spoonful refined vegetable oil
• Seasoning (salt, yellow pepper)

Preparation

1. Wash and slice the jute mallow leaves finely. 
2. Roast groundnuts until crispy. Let cool, then remove the nuts and grind to a paste.
3. Finely chop the onion. 
4. Clean the clove of garlic and crush with the tomatoes and peppers.

Cooking Procedure 

1. In a pan, heat some oil and brown the finely chopped onion. 
2. Add the sliced leaves. 
3. Simmer for ten minutes, then add the paste of garlic, pepper and tomatoes. 
4. Season with salt. Let cook a few minutes.
5. Add fish and water, then cover. 
6. When the pot is boiling, add the groundnut paste, reduce the heat, and let cook uncovered, until the soup thickens. 
7. Remove the pot from the fire and season to taste. 
8. Serve with grated cocoyam or fufu.

Source; Traditional vegetables recipes from Cameroon. (Takemore chagomoka et al., 2014)

c. White soup with Jute Mallow
Cameroon dish
Ingredients
• 1 bundle jute mallow leaves
• 3 cups (600 g) groundnuts
• 6 smoked fish (sole preferred)
• 1 spoonful (125 ml) refined vegetable oil
• 1 large onion
• 2 large tomatoes
• 1 clove of garlic, 1 small piece of ginger, 1 leek, 1 stalk celery,
two yellow peppers
• 0.5 g limestone
• Seasoning (salt, pepper, stock cubes)

Preparation

1. Wash and slice the jute mallow leaves finely. 
2. Soak the groundnuts for 30 minutes, then rinse and drain. 
3. Clean and crush together add leek, celery, ginger, garlic, tomatoes and peppers. 
4. Soak the smoked fish in hot water, remove the bones and clean the flesh. 
5. Dissolve limestone in water; filter to remove grit.
6. Heat limestone water in a pan.

Cooking procedure 

1. Place a pan on the fire; add the oil and heat. Brown the chopped onion, then add the fish and simmer for a few minutes. 
2. Add the fresh groundnut paste diluted in one liter of water, cover and simmer for 20 minutes, stirring from time to time to prevent the paste from sticking to the bottom of the pot. 
3. Mix the sliced jute mallow leaves with a tablespoonful of boiling limestone liquid and stir;
4. pour the mixture into the pan with the groundnuts and mix vigorously.
5. Cover and simmer for ten minutes; adjust the seasoning and serve with grated cocoyam or fufu.

Source; Traditional vegetables recipes from Cameroon. (Takemore chagomoka et al., 2014)

d.  Jute Mallow with pumpkin seeds
Cameroon dish
Ingredients
• 1 bunch jute mallow
• 1 kg meat
• 6 smoked fish (cod preferred)
• 2 cups (400 g) pumpkin seeds
• 2 tomatoes
• 1 clove garlic, 1 piece of ginger
• 1/4 litre refined vegetable oil
• 1 large onion
• Seasoning (salt, pepper, stock cubes)

Preparation
Wash and slice the leaves of jute mallow finely, boil in water with salt and drain. Crush together tomato, garlic and ginger. 
Grind pumpkin seeds and mix with water.

Cooking procedure

1. Cook the meat with water and salt. 
2. Heat a spoonful of vegetable oil and brown the finely chopped onion. 
3. Add the crushed tomato, garlic, and ginger. 
4. Add the cooked meat and crumbled fish. Simmer.
5. Add the jute mallow and boil 15 minutes. 
6. Gradually add pumpkin seed powder. 
7. Cover the pot and cook for 20-30 minutes. 
8. Adjust the seasonings and remove from fire. Serve with fufu corn, fufu, yam, plantain or cassava stick 

Source; Traditional vegetables recipes from Cameroon. (Takemore chagomoka et al., 2014)

Introduction

Water leaf (Talinum fruticosum) is a leafy vegetable that belongs to the Talinaceae family. The genus Talinum comprises about 40 species, primarily found in Mexico and the southern United States, and 7 species in tropical Africa with Talinum fruticosum being one of the most notable and economically significant species. A related species also used as a leafy vegetable in Eastern and Southern Africa is Talinum portulacifolium. 

T. fruticosum is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, particularly in tropical America, the Caribbean, Tropical Africa and South Asia. Waterleaf is well adapted to different ecological conditions and can thrive in both moist and dry environments. In its natural habitat, waterleaf often grows as a weed in farmlands and is common in cultivated or disturbed land, including roadsides and near people's homes.
Waterleaf has various uses, primarily as a food source. The leaves are tender and succulent, making them suitable for consumption as a vegetable. The leaves are widely incorporated into traditional cuisines and are particularly popular in West African countries such as Nigeria, where they are known as "Gbure" or “soko”. The vegetable is typically harvested when young and tender, as the leaves become tougher with age. Culinary practices for preparing waterleaf can vary, but common methods include stir-frying, boiling, or adding it to soups and stews. The vegetable can be combined with other vegetables, meats, or fish to enhance the overall taste of a dish. It is often used as a key ingredient in various traditional dishes, including soups like egusi and Efo Riro. Waterleaf is a rich source of essential vitamins and minerals. It contains significant amounts of vitamins A, C, and E, as well as minerals such as calcium, potassium, and iron. Additionally, it is low in calories and high in dietary fibre, making it a nutritious choice for those seeking a healthy diet.
In addition to its culinary uses, waterleaf also holds medicinal significance. It is believed to possess various health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and antioxidant properties. Traditional medicine practitioners often use water leaf to treat ailments such as gastrointestinal disorders, malaria, and high blood pressure. In addition to its food and medicinal uses, waterleaf can also serve as fodder for livestock, particularly in areas where it is abundantly available (Schippers, 2000, Fontem & Schippers, 2004).

Species account

1. Talinum fruticosum
Waterleaf is an erect perennial herb species with swollen roots and hairless, and succulent stems, which can grow to 1-3 m in height. Leaves -are arranged spirally and clustered at the stem's top. The leaf blades are usually spoon-shaped, succulent, and occasionally indented at the apex. Flowers- pink, bisexual, and primarily self-pollinate with limited outcrossing. The inflorescences are triangular. Fruits- light-green, ellipsoid capsules, dehiscent with many dark brown seeds that break open (Nya and Eka, 2015, Schippers 2000, Aja et al. 2010).

2. Talinum portulacifolium
Talinum portulacifolium is a fleshy perennial herb, sometimes creeping, loosely rooted, often growing up through thorny bushes, also shrub-like with woody basal stems, 1.5 m. Leaves are alternate, succulent, without stalks, very variable in size but wider at the tip, about 4 -7 cm long. Flowers arise from terminal stalks, one or more together, bright purple-pink, over 2 cm across with 5 petals around many central yellow stamens. The fruit is an ovoid capsule about 8 mm long, shiny yellow-brown, breaking across to set free tiny brown seeds.
The species is common in dry bushland especially in coastal environments. Also found on floodplains, steep rocky slopes and disturbed roadsides. It is quite common in coastal clay soils. This Talinum is found from Ethiopia and Somali south to the Eastern Cape South Africa. Also on the Arabian Peninsula and India.
The fleshy leaves and stems are chopped and cooked with other vegetables such as Bidens or Cleome, and may be mixed with coconut milk or pounded groundnuts and served with a staple such as ugali. The plant is animal fodder and a good ornamental. It is picked from the wild during and soon after the rainy season. It may be propagated by seed and cuttings (Ruffo et al, 2002, Fondo et al, 2011).

Ecological information

The ideal environment for waterleaf growth is humid, with temperatures of about 30°C. While growth slows significantly during the dry season, it accelerates during the wet season. It thrives in the shade and overcast conditions. Although it may grow in fully exposed areas, the plants there are still tiny. When the soil's water content is just below the field's carrying capacity, growth is at its most abundant. The number of leaves, area of leaves, size of stems, and several branches are all severely impacted by dryness and high temperatures (>35°C). Though often used as fodder, Talinum may contain some hydrocyanic acid that may affect cattle (Fontem, D.A. & Schippers, R.R., 2004).

Agronomic aspects

Waterleaf is usually propagated by seeds or vegetative cuttings. The seeds often have low germination due to poor seed viability or dormancy and should be pregerminated. Seedlings can be transplanted to the field when 3 weeks old. As a result of the difficulty in establishing the crop using seeds, vegetative propagation is encouraged. Vegetative cuttings are taken from the mature stem in 5-to-8-inch segments and can be directly planted 2 inches deep on raised beds without rooting. Waterleaf is frequently intercropped with other vegetable crops; however, it can also be cultivated solely at a spacing of about 15 cm × 15 cm A close spacing reduces competition from weeds and is possible because pressure from diseases is limited Germination takes place after about 5 days and subsequent growth is very rapid if adequate water is supplied. Animal manure such as rabbit or chicken droppings may be added to enhance rapid growth. Waterleaf seeds or cuttings can also be raised in small containers for transplant production before transferring into containers (Schippers 2004; Orluchukwu and Poripo 2014). After removing the leaves, the remaining stem may be planted (Fondo et al, 2007). 

Harvest, post-harvest practices and markets

a.    Harvesting
Waterleaf has a short cultivation cycle, with the first harvest achievable within 3 weeks after planting. Subsequently, shoots can be harvested every 1-2 weeks for about two months. The size of the leaves diminishes as the plant ages and undergoes multiple harvests. The initial 1-3 harvests yield the highest quality leaves for marketing. On average, farmers can harvest from a single plant up to 4 times before its growth declines. For optimal regeneration, it is recommended to harvest the crop by cutting the stem just above ground level rather than solely harvesting the upper portion and side shoots. Even if the lower parts of the stem turn brown and shed leaves due to delayed harvest, cutting just above the ground ensures better quality for subsequent harvests. When waterleaf is planted using cuttings, it is best harvested by cutting the new side shoots. A rain-fed waterleaf crop can be left in the field for a duration of 60-180 days. (Fontem & Schippers, 2004.).

b.    Post-harvest practices
Waterleaf shoots may begin to wither within a few hours after being plucked since the plant is so perishable. The shoots can be kept in a cool dry place at room temperature of stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator for a few days.
c.    Markets
Waterleaf has gained popularity not only in local markets but also in international markets, particularly in regions with a significant African diaspora. African grocery stores and specialty food markets in Europe, North America, and other parts of the world often carry waterleaf due to the demand from African communities.
In Africa, waterleaf enjoys wide marketing and consumption, with notable popularity in West Africa, including Nigeria, Ghana, and Sierra Leone. In Nigeria, it is a common ingredient in soups, stews, and vegetable sauces, and it plays a central role in traditional dishes like "Efo Riro" and "Edikang Ikong." In East Africa, particularly in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, waterleaf is often incorporated into stir-fries, salads, and served as a side dish. Additionally, waterleaf is valued for its medicinal properties in traditional herbal medicine practices. (E.J. Nya et al., 2010).

Nutritional value and recipes

Waterleaf offers remarkable nutritional value and a wide range of health benefits. Waterleaf has low-calorie content, making it an excellent choice for individuals seeking a vegetable with weight management benefits. Moreover, waterleaf is an abundant source of dietary fibre, promoting healthy digestion, preventing constipation, and supporting overall gastrointestinal health. 
The leaves are abundant in various beneficial compounds, including noteworthy quantities of vitamin C, vitamin E, Omega-3 fatty acids, calcium, magnesium, soluble fibres such as pectin, potassium, β-carotene, proteins, and dietary fibre. Vitamins A, C, and E, which are potent antioxidants, protecting the body from harmful free radicals. Waterleaf's high vitamin A content makes it beneficial for eye health. The vitamin C content in waterleaf enhances the immune system's function, protecting the body against infections and illnesses. Additionally, waterleaf contains vitamin K, which aids in calcium absorption and helps maintain healthy bone density. 
Talinum fruticosum has garnered considerable attention in ethnobotanical studies. Further scientific investigation is necessary to identify the specific chemical constituents responsible for these reported benefits. In particular, there is a need for focused research on the plant's antioxidant activity, as it holds promising potential in this area (Bioltif, 2020, Fontem & Schippers, 2004).

Table 1: Approximate nutritional composition of 100 g of waterleaf (Talinum fruticosum) leaves.

Source (Nutrient data): FAO/Government of Kenya. 2018. West African food composition table, https://www.fao.org/3/ca7779b/CA7779B.PDF
$ Draining the water several times leaches away water soluble nutrients significantly.
a Lewis, J. 2019. Codex nutrient reference values. Rome. FAO and WHO
b NHS (refers to saturated fat)
c https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/water/
d British Heart Foundation
e FDA
f NIH
g Mayo Clinic

Complimentary recipes
Talinum portulacifolium is a slimy vegetable and is not usually cooked alone. Waterleaf is usually mixed with meat or other leaves and it is not a practice to cook it alone. It is a slimy, leafy vegetable. The Giriama and Chonyi people of Coastal Kenya cook Talinum leaves with amaranth or cassava leaves. The cooked mixture is used as an accompaniment for ugali (stiff porridge). It is said to be good for digestion.

1.    Waterleaf soup- Gbure soup
Yoruba recipe, Nigeria. 

Ingredients 
•    5 medium-sized beef pieces
•    4 pieces of shaki (beef tripe)
•    1 small bunch of waterleaf
•    A handful of washed bitter leaves
•    1/2 cup of crayfish pieces
•    2 scotch bonnet chillies, chopped
•    Seasoning cubes
•    1 tablespoon of grounded crayfish
•    1.5 cooking spoons of palm oil

Cooking procedure 
•    Season and simmer beef, tripe, and any other desired proteins.
•    When water reduces, add crayfish powder, chopped pepper, crayfish pieces, and additional seasoning cubes if desired. Reduce heat.
•    Thinly shred waterleaves and bitter leaf.
•  Once beef broth significantly reduces, add oil and immediately incorporate bitter leaf and water leaf. 
•    Stir, remove from heat, and let vegetables cook in the residual heat to preserve their nutrients.
(Serves 2 people)
Source: (afrolem, 2015)
2.  Waterleaf, Ceylon spinach
Ingredients
½ cup of water
Salt to taste
4 tablespoonfuls of oil
6 small-sized tomatoes
1 fruit of sweet pepper diced
1 onion
1 kg waterleaf (Talinum fruticosum)
300 g of smoked fish or smoked meat

Preparation

1. Clean leaves with water to remove dirt
2. Cut the leaves and the tender stems
3. Without adding any water, put the vegetables on low heat and boil the vegetables for about 15 minutes or until the vegetable is reasonably soft
4. Drain off any excess water in a container by pressing the vegetable by hand
5. Heat the palm oil in a pan, add the onions and fry till they begin to turn golden brown
6. Add the tomatoes and pepper and cook till they become tender
7. Add the boiled leaves and cook briefly for 5 minutes
8. Add the smoked fish and salt to taste
9. Add fresh water or the water drained from the vegetables
10. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes or until much of the water has evaporated
11. Remove from fire and serve with fufu, rice, etc.

Remarks
Consumed by communities found in the central parts of DRC especially popular with the Baluba community. 

Source: Cyrille Okulungu, Congo Recipes in: A Cookbook of African Leafy Vegetables. Maundu et al, IPGRI, 2006. 

3.    Edikang Ikong soup
Nigerian soup recipe.
Ingredients 
•    1kg Pumpkin leaves
•    500g Waterleaf (Talinum)
•    600g Beef, Kanda (Cow skin), shaki (Stripe) and Dry fish
•    Pepper, Salt and ground crayfish: to taste
•    200ml Palm oil
•    1 cup Periwinkle
•    2 medium onions
•    2-3 stock cubes
Cooking procedure

1. Wash and cut the pumpkin and water leaves into small pieces. Place them in separate sieves to remove excess water.
2. Cut the Kanda into small pieces. In a pot, cook the beef, Kanda, and dry fish along with two diced onions and stock cubes, using minimal water.
3. Once the meat is cooked, add a generous amount of palm oil, crayfish, and pepper. Allow it to boil for approximately 10 minutes. The palm oil will serve as the primary liquid in the Edikang Ikong soup, so it's important to minimize the presence of other liquids.
4. Introduce the periwinkle and water leaves and let them cook for an additional 5 minutes. Be careful not to overcook the water leaves, so a shorter cooking time may be necessary.
5. Incorporate the pumpkin leaves and season with salt to taste. Thoroughly stir the contents of the pot, then turn off the heat. Cover the pot and let it sit for about 5 minutes.
6. Serve the Edikang Ikong soup with accompaniments such as Garri (Eba), Semolina Fufu, Amala, Cassava Fufu, or Pounded Yam.

Source: All Nigerian Recipes. (2019).
Note: Waterleaf has oxalate, which can cause kidney stones if consumed excessively without proper preparation. Cooking or blanching can remove a substantial amount of the soluble oxalate. It also contains some hydrocyanic acid much of which is removed during preparation. It may have nitrates and nitrites, which are unaffected by cooking, hence requires caution when including waterleaf in infant diets. Saponins are abundant in waterleaf (Fontem, D.A. & Schippers, R.R., 2004).

Introduction.

Basella alba belongs to the Basellaceae family and is often known as Malabar spinach, Indian spinach, Ceylon spinach, and vine spinach. The genus Basella is a group of flowering plants that includes five species. Three of these species are endemic to Madagascar, while one is native to eastern Africa. Two species, Basella alba and Basella alba var. rubra, are widely cultivated for food and ornamental purposes across the tropics. Basella alba is particularly popular as a spinach substitute in many parts of Asia and Africa, while Basella alba var. rubra is grown as an ornamental plant and used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments. This crop is commonly grown in backyard gardens or as a houseplant, but can also be found growing in the wild, particularly in forested or swampy areas. The two distinct species within the Basella genus, B. alba and Basella alba var. rubra, can be differentiated by variations in their leaf characteristics and stem colors. B. alba has dark green leaves and green stems, whereas Basella alba var. rubra features purple stems and dark green leaves with pink veins. As there are no other distinct characteristics to differentiate between these two species, the common names are often used interchangeably.

Malabar spinach is highly valued for its tender young shoots, which are enjoyed as a succulent and slightly mucilaginous vegetable. It can be boiled, used in soups or stews as a potherb, fried in oil, or even used raw in salads. Europeans living in Africa commonly use Malabar spinach as a substitute for spinach, and young tops and seedlings can be used in place of corn salad. The fruit of the plant is useful for dyeing, as the red juice can be used as an ink or cosmetic, and it can also be used to add color to foods. In addition to its culinary uses, Basella spp. has a range of medicinal applications. The young leaves of the plant can serve as a laxative, while the red fruit juice is used as eye drops to treat conjunctivitis. In Africa, the leaves are used to alleviate stomach pains and constipation after childbirth, and crushed leaves are used as a poultice to treat sores. In certain regions of Africa, the plant is given to livestock to increase milk production. Red varieties of B. alba are often grown as ornamental plants and are popular as potted plants in Europe and North America. (Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O., 2004, Maundu et al., 1999).

Species account

Basella alba is a soft, twining perennial plant with fleshy, green stems that are often tinged brownish-purple. The leaves are heart-shaped with a pointed, soft, shiny, dark green blade that can reach up to 10cm in length. The plant bears small, fleshy, cream or white flowers on an erect inflorescence. The species grows in forests, forests edges, Humid bushland, wet rocks, and cliffs and is common in disturbed areas. Although the information on its invasiveness is not provided, B. alba can grow rampantly in optimal conditions and become invasive if not properly managed in cultivation. Given that the species reproduces efficiently by seeds and vegetatively and develops rapidly, it has a high potential to become invasive in suitable environments. There is a need for further information on the invasiveness and impacts of this species to analyze how it affects habitats and other species and to determine the risk it poses to nations where it is not yet invasive. (Maundu et al., 1999, Vélez-Gavilán J, 2018).

Basella alba var. rubra is a perennial herbaceous vine, creeping or climbing up to 10 m. The leaves are green, oval, glossy, and prominently veined. The stems and petioles are beetroot-red to purple and succulent. Flowers are small and insignificant, produced in terminal or axillary spikes. Fruits are one-seeded indehiscent berries with persistent fleshy calyxes, ripening to purplish-black and containing purple juice, falling off readily from the parent plant for self-seeding. The species is related to and differentiated from B alba, which has darker green leaves, green stems, and white flowers (Flora and Fauna web., 2019).

Ecological information

The optimum mean annual temperature for Basella sp is 23 to 27°C, but they can tolerate a temperature range of 10 to 35°C. It does not tolerate frost and requires a minimum daytime temperature of 15°C. It prefers an annual precipitation range of 2000 to 2500 mm but will tolerate 700 to 4200 mm. Even though it is cultivated worldwide up to 2600 m elevation and in tropical, subtropical, and temperate areas, the species will grow best in hot, dry, humid climates and below 500 m elevations. The species prefers well-drained fertile sandy loam soils and full sun to light shade situations. It can grow in soils with a pH range of 5.5 – 7 but can tolerate 4.3 - 7.5. It tolerates poor soils and short periods of drought. It is intolerant to salinity and standing water. 

Agronomic aspects

Malabar spinach can be grown as a short-term crop of 2–4 months without support or as a long-term crop grown on fences or trelisses. Propagation of this plant can be achieved through either seeds or cuttings that measure about 20cm long. Short-term crops are commonly planted through direct sowing, as well as the transplantation of seedlings or cuttings.

Planting 
To grow from seeds: The seed bed should be tilled to loosen the soil and incorporate compost or well-rotted manure. For direct sowing, seeds may be sown at a rate of 300 seeds per m2 (10 g/m2) in rows spaced 10 cm apart. After 15 days at the cotyledon stage, thin the seedlings to 100 plants per m2. For a long-term crop, sow 3-4 seeds per hole directly into the prepared soil bed in double lines on either side of supports 1.2-1.5 meters high. Space the rows 60 cm apart and the plants 30 cm in the row. A density of 5 plants per m2 is often used for commercial production.
Seedlings can also be grown in containers or seed trays before transplanting. When the seedlings reach a height of 10-15 cm, transplant them to beds with a spacing of 40-50 cm × 40-50 cm or in rows spaced 60-70 cm apart and 25-30 cm between plants. Plants grown from seed are more productive than those grown from cuttings. Water the seedlings regularly and ensure they receive enough sunlight to grow healthy.

To grow from cuttings: Choose healthy cuttings that are at least 20 cm long, with atleast two nodes, and are firm, green, and free from any damage or disease. Prepare the cuttings by removing some of the lower leaves, leaving only one or two leaves at the top, and dip the cut end of the stem into rooting hormone powder to stimulate root growth.
Dig a hole deep enough to hold the cutting and then firm the soil around it to ensure it stands upright. Space the cuttings approximately 25-30 cm apart to give them enough room to grow. Water the cuttings immediately after planting and keep the soil moist but not waterlogged, as watering is essential to keep the cuttings hydrated and promote the growth of roots.
(Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O., 2004)

Husbandry
Malabar spinach is an exceedingly vigorous plant with a climbing habit. To grow the plant effectively, trellising is required to support the vine's climb and spread.
Malabar spinach can be grown in hanging baskets and large containers or trellised and trained to climb on posts, fences, and live support structures as an ornamental plant. Basella sp requires plenty of water in hot, humid climates for proper growth. 

Harvest, post harvest practises and markets

Harvesting
After planting, Malabar spinach can be harvested within 30 – 45 days. Tips of branches 15–25 cm long are pinched out weekly for about two months. For a long-term crop, the harvest starts 5–6 weeks after sowing or somewhat earlier if cuttings were used. For transplanted seedlings, Harvesting starts 50–70 days after transplanting. Harvesting continues at regular intervals for up to 6 months when the leaves become too small.
Short-term crop yields up to 40 t/ha in 75 days; for long-term crops, yields are very variable, up to 1.5 kg of shoots or leaves per plant or 80 t/ha in 180 days. Yields of 20–50 t/ha per month of cultivation have been reported.

Post-Harvest 
To reduce deterioration, the shoots are tied in bunches. Malabar spinach keeps only one day at temperatures of 20–30°C. For longer storage, the product should be kept in a cool room. The leaves are not usually dried.

Value addition and Market value 

Malabar spinach is extensively promoted in numerous regions of Africa and can be found many local markets. In Kenya, Basella alba is grown and consumed mainly by smallholder farmers and is sold in local markets in west Pokot. The vegetable is also gaining popularity among urban consumers in the Nairobi market. In Tanzania, Basella alba is grown and consumed in many country regions and is commonly sold in the local market (Maundu et al., 1999).

Nutritional value and recipes 

Malabar spinach is a leafy vegetable highly valued for its high nutritional value and antioxidants. It is a good source of dietary fiber, which aids in digestion, promotes satiety, and supports bowel regularity. The vegetable is also low in calories, making it an excellent choice for weight watchers. Vine spinach is a good source of iron, which is essential for oxygen transport and the prevention of iron deficiency anemia. It also contains calcium, magnesium, potassium, and manganese, which are necessary for various bodily functions, including bone health, muscle function, and electrolyte balance.

Vine spinach is an excellent It is particularly rich in vitamin A, which is important for eye health, immune function, and healthy skin. It also provides significant amounts of vitamin C, an antioxidant that supports immune function, collagen synthesis, and iron absorption. Vine spinach contains vitamin K, which plays a crucial role in blood clotting and bone health.

The plant has been found to have anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anticancer properties. Daily consumption of Basella positively affects total-body vitamin A stores in men. Furthermore, Basella spp. has a good amount of antioxidants, particularly beta carotene and lutein, naturally occurring chemicals that can help your cells from aging. Comparison of the nutrient content of Basella alba var. rubra and B. alba reveals that these two components have similar nutrient profiles, with some slight differences. B. alba has slightly higher amounts of niacin, ascorbic acid, zinc, sodium, and magnesium, while Basella alba var. rubra has slightly higher amounts of iron and potassium. Both components have similar amounts of copper and calcium.

(AVRDC & IPGRI., 2006, Deshmukh and Gaikwad 2014, Hossain et al., 2016, Kumar et al, 2015).

Table 1: Approximate nutritional content of 100 g of vine spinach leaves

Source (Nutrient data): FAO/Government of Kenya. 2018. Kenya Food Composition Tables. Nairobi, 254 pp. http://www.fao.org/3/I9120EN/i9120en.pdf
$ Draining the water several times leaches away water soluble nutrients significantly.
a Lewis, J. 2019. Codex nutrient reference values. Rome. FAO and WHO
b NHS (refers to saturated fat)
c https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/water/
d British Heart Foundation
e FDA
f NIH

Complimentary Recipes
Malabar spinach leaves and young shoots are used to prepare a succulent, slightly mucilaginous vegetable in various communities in africa. It is a versatile vegetable that can be cooked in various ways, including stir-frying, steaming, boiling, and stewing. It is commonly used in soups, stews, sauces, and curries and is often served with staple foods such as rice, maize, or cassava. Nderema should only be lightly cooked. The berries yield a red dye that colors desserts, cakes, and jelly. It is a delicious addition to other greens.

a.    Nderema in groundnut paste 
Ingredients
•    200 g vine spinach leaves
•    ½ cup (125 ml) water
•    2 tablespoonfuls of traditional salt 
•    2 tablespoonfuls groundnuts (pounded to powder)
•    2 tablespoonfuls or 20 g ghee
•    Salt

Preparation
•    Remove stalks off the leaves, and then wash the leaves
•    Cut them roughly
•    Boil the water; add the traditional salt and the vegetables
•    Allow cooking for 5-8 minutes, stirring occasionally 
•    Add the pounded groundnuts, ghee, and salt. Stir
•    Serve hot with Ugali
Source; Cookbook for traditional vegetables (IPGRI., 2006). Unpublished

b.    Nderema in fresh milk 

Ingredients
•    200 g of vine spinach 
•    1 medium-sized onion (50 g when)
•    2 medium-sized tomatoes (60 g when)
•    2 tablespoonfuls of cooking oil
•    Salt to taste
•    ½ cup fresh milk

Preparation:
•    Remove the stalks off the leaves and wash them leaves
•    Heat the oil, add the chopped onions, and fry till they begin to turn golden brown
•    Add the vegetables, stir for a minute, then add chopped tomatoes
•    Add salt to taste, stir, then add milk and cook for a further 3 minutes 
•    Serve hot with ugali. (Yields two servings)

Remarks: 
Vine spinach is tastier when prepared with traditional salt than when fried. Traditional salt also helps retain the green color of the vegetable even after cooking. Vine spinach generally retains green color than most local vegetables. This vegetable is said to give relief to individuals suffering from stomach ulcers.
Source: Cookbook for traditional vegetables (IPGRI., 2006). Unpublished.

c.    Mangalorean Malabar spinach curry recipe 
ingredient
•    ¾ cup black-eyed beans/lobia/chawli
•    1 to 1.5 cups chopped Malabar spinach leaves and stems 
•    ¾ cup to 1 cup fresh grated coconut/nariyal
•    1 tbsp oil
•    1 small onion/pyaaz
•    1 medium tomato/tamatar
•    3 to 4 garlic/lahsun
•    1 tsp mustard seeds/rai
•    a pinch of asafoetida/hing
•    salt as required
•    For dry roasting the spices
•    3 tsp coriander seeds/sabut dhania
•    2 tsp cumin/sabut jeera
•    3-4 black peppercorns/sabut kali mirch
•    ¼ tsp fenugreek seeds/methi dana
•    2 to 3 dry red chillies/

Cooking procedure
•    Rinse and soak the black-eyed beans or chawli/lobia in enough water overnight or for 5 to 6 hours.
•    Drain them and pressure cook the black-eyed beans in 2 or 2.5 cups water, along with salt, till they are cooked well and softened. They should not become mushy.
•    Heat a small skillet or pan. Add all the whole spices and, on low heat, dry roast them till aromatic.
•    When the spices cool, add them to a grinder along with grated coconut.
•    Add some water and make a smooth paste of the roasted spices with the coconut.
•    Keep the coconut spices paste aside.
•    Lightly crush garlic in a mortar-pestle keeping the peels on it and just crushing them lightly, not making a paste of them.
•    Finely chop the onions and dice the tomatoes.
•    Rinse and remove the leaves from the stems of the Malabar spinach. Small leaves can be kept intact. Large leaves can be chopped.
•    Cut the tender stems into one or 1.5-inch pieces. If the stems are not tender, you must cook them separately in water in a pan or pressure cooker until they are cooked well.
•    Heat oil in a pan. Crackle the mustard first.
•    Then add the crushed garlic with their peels. saute for 4-5 seconds
•    Add onions and saute till translucent. add the tomatoes and coconut spice paste
•    Stir and saute for 2 to 3 minutes.
•    Add the Malabar spinach leaves and stems.
•    Stir and add 1 to 1.5 cups of stock or water. Season with salt and stir again.
•    Simmer the curry for 6-7 minutes on a low to medium flame.
•    Add the cooked black-eyed beans and simmer for 6-7 minutes or more, till all the flavors are well blended. You will see specks of oil on top of the curry when it's done.
•    If the curry looks thick, add water if required, and continue to simmer.
•    The curry is neither thick nor thin but of medium consistency.
•    Lastly, garnish the curry with chopped coriander leaves if you prefer.

Serve the Malabar spinach curry hot with steamed rice and chapattis.

Source: Cookbook for traditional vegetables (IPGRI., 2006). Unpublished

Introduction 

Launaea cornuta, commonly known as bitter lettuce or mchunga, is an erect perennial plant with up to 1.5 m tall hollow stems and creeping rhizomes. L. cornuta is a member of the Asteraceae (Compositae) family, one of the eight families comprising the order Campanulales. The plant is native to Africa and occurs on alluvial soils in cultivated areas, including irrigated crops, on roadsides, near rivers, and bush vegetation. A single plant can cover a large area because of the spread of rhizomes. Its range extends from Nigeria to Djibouti and Somalia to Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the south. In East Africa, it is predominantly used as a wild vegetable, as feed for rabbits and lambs, and to boost milk yield in cows. It is rich in nutrients, such as proteins, fats, carbs, calcium, phosphorus, iron, and ascorbic acid. The plant has several ceremonial uses among the Mijikenda in Kenya. It is utilized for its anticancer, antidiabetic, insecticidal, antimalarial, antibacterial, and anthelmintic properties. It has been used to treat gonorrhea, syphilis, sore throats, coughs, typhus, nasal-pharyngeal infections, measles, swollen testicles, spleen pain, earaches, hookworm eradication, and fever L. cornuta is vegetatively propagated locally through rhizomes.
The leaves are collected primarily from the wild. Nonetheless, there is some cultivation in Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania, primarily in home gardens. Recently, production in a peri-urban setting for urban markets has emerged. This vegetable is commonly found in the coastal regions of Kenya, Tanzania, and the Usambara Mountains, as well as in local markets. However, no cross-border trade exists.
(Schippers, R.R., 2004, Hiene and Heine, 1988, Kinyanjui G et al., 2015, Abukutsa, 2007, Burkill, 1985, Ndossi and Sreeramulu, 1991, Ambajo & Matheka, 2016.

Species account

Launea cornuta is a small much-branched shrub usually 1.0-1.5 m high, occasionally to 3 m. Stems ridged. Leaves: Grey-green, long, narrow lobed laterally, often on one side and with a toothed margin, Aromatic. Flowers: Purplish pink, borne in clusters, Corolla over 3 mm across at apex. Fruits: Small (2-3 mm) green, shiny, turning reddish purple when ripe, numerous on one head, each one-seeded (Maundu et al., 1999).

Ecological information

Launaea cornuta grows in disturbed localities such as roadsides or as a troublesome weed in perennial plantations of trees or shrubs. It can also be found in grassland. It is most common in the hot lowland coastal zones of East Africa and near the great lakes and less common in highland areas up to 2300 m altitude. It prefers sandy soils in relatively dry localities but grows on loam and black cotton soils (Schippers, R.R., 2004).

Agronomic aspects 

Planting 
The vegetable is normally not planted as it is a common weed where it is used as a vegetable (Maundu, P.M.et al., 1999a). Bitter lettuce can be propagated vegetatively. People may select plants from the wild that are sweet or only slightly bitter and plant these in their gardens. Some gardeners split the roots from carefully selected plants to produce several new plantlets and thus create a uniform crop of the desired type (Schippers, R.R., 2004). 

Management 
Care should be taken to prevent bitter lettuce from spreading as a weed (Schippers, R.R., 2004).

Harvest, post-harvest practices and markets

Harvesting
Harvesting is done by uprooting the entire plant when it reaches maturity but before flowering. Alternatively, leaves can be selectively picked. It's worth noting that individuals prefer sizable rosette leaves due to the excessive bitterness of older and smaller stem leaves. (Schippers, R.R., 2004). 
Markets
Although predominantly gathered from the wild, there is a noticeable increase in cultivation across Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. This versatile vegetable has gained popularity in local markets along the coast and in the scenic Usambara Mountains. Moreover, there is a rising trend of production in peri-urban areas to cater to urban markets. However, it is important to note that cross-border trade of Launea cornuta is still limited at present (Schippers, R.R., 2004).

Nutritional value and recipes

Launea cornuta leaves are known to have a pronounced bitterness, which is why they are often used in combination with other vegetables to balance out the flavor. In the coastal region of Kenya, particularly among the Mijikenda community, bitter leaf is commonly mixed with less bitter vegetables such as Asystasia gangetica, amaranth, pumpkin leaves, cowpea leaves, and Vernonia cinere. The cultural practice of draining water when cooking bitter lettuce is prevalent, particularly among the Mijikenda community in coastal Kenya. This technique is employed to mitigate the inherent bitterness of the lettuce. There is a need for comprehensive research to ascertain the nutritional profile and implications of such practices on the nutrient content of bitter lettuce

Table 1:Proximate nutritional composition of 100 g of Launaea cornuta leaves

Source (Nutrient data): Chemical studies on the nutritional value of Launaea cornuta (Ndossi, G.D. & Sreeramulu, N., 1991)
$ Draining the water several times leaches away water soluble nutrients significantly.
a Lewis, J. 2019. Codex nutrient reference values. Rome. FAO and WHO
b NHS (refers to saturated fat)
c https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/water/
d British Heart Foundation

e FDA
f NIH
g Mayo Clinic

It's important to note that these values are approximate and can vary depending on factors such as the specific variety of the leaves and the growing conditions. It is always advisable to consult a healthcare professional or nutritionist for personalized dietary recommendations.

Complimentary recipes
a. Muthunga. (Mbeere recipe) *
*Ingredients*
•    100 g Bitter lettuce leaves
•    50 g of Amaranth 
•    60 g onions
•    40 g tomatoes
•    3 tablespoons cooking oil
•    Salt to taste
•    1 cup of water

*Preparation*
•    Sort the bitter lettuce leaves, wash and chop finely (they can also be cooked whole)
•    Bring the vegetable to a boil twice for five minutes, pouring the water from the vegetables each time. 
•    Clean, wash and chop the onions
•    Fry the onions with salt lightly.
•    Add chopped amaranth leaves and stir well; cover the pan for 1 minute and simmer
•    Add the boiled Bitter lettuce to the cooking amaranth cover the pan for 1 minute and simmer
•    Season to taste and serve hot with stiff porridge (Preferably made from sorghum and Millet).

*Variations*
•  Use pumpkin leaves' instead of Amaranth
•    Groundnut flour/peanut butter can be added to the cooking vegetable to flavor.

*Yields*; 6 servings

Remarks
Muthunga leaves are mixed with other vegetables like Cowpea, amaranth, and Corchorus to mask the bitterness. The vegetable meal is appreciated by the elderly in the community. 
The Mutsunga are believed to remedy stomach discomfort. 

*Source*: Ms. Yvonne Mumbi, secretary Kagirimu African culture preservers 

b. Fried Mchunga
Ingredients
•    100 g mchunga
•    40 g (1 medium) onion 
•    3 tablespoonfuls butter/margarine
•    60 g (1 medium) tomato 
•    2 cups    water
•    ¼ cup fresh cream
•    Salt to taste
Ingredients 
•    Preparation
•    Remove the vegetables from the stalks and clean them
•    Boil the water and add salt to taste
• Blanch the vegetables for about 2 minutes
•    Drain the hot water and run cold water through the vegetables
•    Heat a pan, melt the butter and fry the chopped onion not letting it brown
•    Add the vegetables and cook them for 2 minutes, stirring them constantly
•    Add the chopped tomatoes, stir
•    Add the fresh cream, salt to taste and seasoning of your choice and stir

Serve with accompaniment of your choice
Yields five servings
Remarks
Mchunga is a quite bitter vegetable but adding cream or butter tones down the bitterness. Blanching helps to preserve the green colour.

Introduction

The genus Urtica comprises about 80 species and is almost cosmopolitan, with most species in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Most may cause irritation upon contact with the skin. About half a dozen of these occur naturally in Africa. Of these, U. massaica, U. simensis, U. urens and U. dioica are most important. Both U. massaica and U. simensis are endemic to the continent, being respectively found around the Great East African lakes and the Ethiopian Highlands. They are both used as leafy vegetables. Urtica dioica and U. urens occur naturally along the Mediterranean in North Africa and both have also been introduced in Southern Africa, particularly South Africa. 
Urtica species can be found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, forests undergrowth, forest edges and wetlands. Stinging trichomes of the leaves and stems have bulbous tips that break off when brushed against, revealing needlelike tubes that pierce the skin, injecting a mix of acetylcholine, formic acid, histamine, and serotonin, that causes itchy, burning sensation in animals including humans. Animals like hunting dogs running through stinging nettle thickets have been poisoned, sometimes lethally, by the massive accumulation of stings. The defensive mechanism is an effective deterrent against large herbivores, though the plant is important food for several butterfly species and aphids. Dried plants can be used as livestock feed, and heating or cooking the fresh leaves renders them safe for consumption.
Most Urtica species are potential vegetables, especially in the dried form. The leaves and young shoots of Urtica massaica and U. simensis are traditionally cooked and eaten as vegetable along with starchy foods. Urtica species are generally rich in nutrients, including vitamins A and C, iron, and calcium. 
Urtica species are important medicinal plants. The plants have been used as remedies for different ailments, such as high fever, diabetes, gout, and arthritis. Tea made from the leaves can also be used for hay fever, while creams have been developed for joint pain and skin ailments. The roots of the plant are used as a diuretic and to treat urinary disorders. The Maasai use the leaves to cure stomachaches, while the Kisii people use them for malaria treatment. In Tanzania, the roots and leaves are used for hepatic diseases. In Uganda, the leaves are used as a repellent against rats and for crop protection. Additionally, the plant's stems produce a strong flax-like fiber used to make strings, cloth, and paper. The plant's juice or a decoction formed by boiling the herb in a strong solution of salt can curdle milk and act as a rennet substitute. The juice can also be rubbed into leaky wooden tubs to make them watertight. 

(Bosch & Schippers, 2004, Grubben et al, 2004, Maundu et al., 1999).

Species accounts

Urtica massaica is an erect perennial herb that can grow to a height of 2 m high covered all over with stinging hairs about 2 mm long. Stems: are angles, arising from a rhizome creeping below the soil surface. Leaves: a dark green color, opposite heart-shaped with a serrated margin and a pointed tip. Flowers are dioecious, small and light-green to white, borne in long spike like florescence arising from the leaf axils. Fruits: small, green and flattened resembling those of tomatoes. U. massaica occurs in eastern DR Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Uganda and northern Tanzania. The plant occurs in clearings and natural glades in rainforests and moist evergreen bushland often near human dwellings, especially in cattle enclosures and cleared areas near gardens. Found in altitudes 1,500-3,250 m. The leaves of U. massaica can be consumed after being wilted and boiled, or consumed raw when young, similar to other Urtica species found worldwide. In addition to its culinary uses, U. massaica has a variety of medicinal properties. The Maasai community uses its leaves to alleviate stomach-ache, while the Kisii region of Kenya employs them to treat malaria. In Tanzania, the roots and leaves are macerated and used to treat hepatic diseases. The plant is also utilized in Rwanda and Burundi, both alone and in combination with other botanicals, to treat a range of maladies such as bruises, fractures, venereal diseases, rheumatism, and urethral leaks. Furthermore, the leaves of U. massaica are used in Uganda as a repellent for rats and to protect crops from grazing cattle.
(Maundu et al., 1999, Grubben et al., 1999, Bosch & Schippers, 2004).

Related species 
a.    Urtica dioica typically grows to a height of 1 to 2 meters (3 to 6 feet). The plant has a straight, erect stem covered in tiny hairs, which are known for their stinging properties. The leaves are opposite, serrated, and heart-shaped, with a dark green color. The plant produces inconspicuous flowers that are greenish and arranged in long, branched clusters. The plant's unique feature is its stinging hairs, which inject chemicals when touched, serving as a defence mechanism. The species occurs in moist sites along stream, meadow and ditches, on mountain slopes in woodland clearings and in disturbed areas. Despite this, stinging nettle is valued for its nutritional richness, including vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. It has a history of traditional medicinal use for allergies, arthritis, and urinary tract disorders. Additionally, nettle extracts are utilized in skincare products (NC state extension. n.d).

b.    Urtica urens is a monoecious annual herb, erect or ascending growing up to 75 cm tall and branching at the base. Stipules c. 1.5 × 0.5 mm, narrowly lanceolate. Leaves 1.5-4 cm, ovate or elliptic, incised-dentate; the lower shorter than their petioles; petiole 3-5 cm long. The plant has clusters of small, greenish-white flowers form where leaves join stems. The seed leaves are round or slightly elongated with smooth edges and a notch in the tip. First true leaves and all later leaves have distinctly toothed edges. It can be a particular nuisance because the bristles or hairs on its leaves and stems give off a substance that causes an intense burning sensation. This species of stinging nettle is reputed to sting more strongly than other species of stinging Nettle. U urens is adapted to many environments, infesting a wide range of horticultural crops, especially where there is irrigation or summer rainfall. In pastures, it can become prevalent in situations rich in organic material or manure, such as stock camps, holding yards or watering points 
(Lazarides et al., 1997, Hyde, et al., 2021).
c.    Urtica simensis is a dioecious, erect perennial herb that grows to a height of 1 m tall. Almost unbranched, rhizome creeping and 0.25 mm long stinging hairs. The leaves are opposite with simple stipules fused. The plant is found in grassland and often in disturbed localities and near human settlement in Ethiopia. The plant is used as a vegetable. 
(Maundu et al., 1999, Grubben et al., 2004).

Ecological information

Light: Stinging nettle thrives in full sun conditions but will tolerate some shade. Shading makes the plant grow too tall with less dense foliage. Soil: This plant does best in loamy or clayish soils rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. It thrives in disturbed soil and often in abandoned dwellings, provided the underlying soil is rich. Stinging Nettle tolerates a wide range of pH levels, from very acidic to very alkaline. Altitude: In the tropics Urtica sp are mainly found in highlands where the weather is cool and humidity generally high but in the subtropics and temperate lands the species can be found in lower altitudes.

Agronomic aspects

Stinging nettle can be propagated by seeds and rhizomes. To propagate using the rhizomes simply dig up plants from an existing patch and move them to a new location. It is easy to do in spring when the plants are just beginning new growth. Stinging nettles spread readily through rhizomes. Gloves preferably should be worn when handling the planting materials to avoid irritation.
Stinging nettle can also be grown easily from seeds collected from existing plants. Seeds of stinging nettle are very tiny. This could be scattered over the surface of a tray filled with ordinary potting mix (soil and manure). A thin layer of soil is then sprinkled on top of the seeds. Some species of urtica may need light to germinate. Seeds sprout within 2 weeks; the seedlings can then be transplanted.

(Bosch & Schippers, 2004, Maundu et al., 1999).

Harvest and post-harvest practices and markets

Nettle plants offer edible parts, but caution must be exercised due to their barbs. The leaves and stems require cooking, blending, crushing, or drying to neutralize their stinging properties. 
To harvest nettle plants, use gloves to pick growing shoots this promotes new side shoots. Leaves tend to toughen when flowering sets in. When handling nettle plants in your garden, always don protective clothing, such as thick rubber gardening gloves, long sleeves and trousers. It is advisable to refrain from touching your face during the process.

Markets 
Urtica presents a range of value-added opportunities, including the processing of the plant into tea, supplements, tinctures, or dry ground vegetables. Urtica products have demonstrated efficacy in treating ailments such as allergies, inflammation, and arthritis. As the demand for natural and alternative remedies continues to grow, the market value of Urtica remains significant. Beyond medicinal applications, Urtica fibres are also sought after in the textile industry, where there is an increasing demand for eco-friendly and sustainable fabrics. Moreover, the cosmetics and personal care industry utilizes Urtica in the production of natural and organic skincare products, including creams, lotions, and shampoos. Increasingly the dried ground Urtica is being sold and used to fortify soups in Kenya.
Considering the wide range of applications and associated health benefits, the market value of Urtica is expected to keep rising. This makes it an appealing and potentially lucrative investment opportunity for entrepreneurs and businesses alike.
(Medicalnewstoday, n.d, Samanta et al, 2021, Gunjan et al, 2015)

Nutritional value recipes

Stinging nettle is a highly nutritious African vegetable that boasts numerous health benefits. 
The leaves are an excellent source of minerals such as calcium, potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium. The minerals are important in maintaining strong bones and teeth, regulating fluid balance, supporting muscle and nerve function, and more. The calcium content in the leaves helps reduce osteoporosis, and the polyphenols in the leaves help prevent and manage inflammation disorders, heart disease and diabetes.
Stinging nettle offers further health benefits. Its tea, high in vitamin C, can aid in treating urinary tract infections (UTIs). It also shows promise in alleviating symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), a condition characterized by prostate enlargement. The plant promotes scalp blood circulation, which aids in hair growth, and it can be used to address skin issues like acne and eczema. Moreover, stinging nettle acts as a diuretic, helping eliminate excess uric acid and potentially reducing the risk of kidney and gallbladder stones (Bioltif, 2020, Osafo, 2021, Aluyor et al., 2022).
Table 1: Proximate nutritional composition of 100 g of stinging nettle leaves.

Source (Nutrient data): FAO/Government of Kenya. 2018. Kenya Food Composition Tables. Nairobi, 254 pp. http://www.fao.org/3/I9120EN/i9120en.pdf

$ Draining the water several times leaches away water soluble nutrients significantly.
a Lewis, J. 2019. Codex nutrient reference values. Rome. FAO and WHO
b NHS (refers to saturated fat)
c https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/water/
d British Heart Foundation
e FDA
f NIH
g Mayo Clinic
Complimentary recipes
Drying. 
Dried leaves can also be grounded into a powder for use in cooking, to make tea, or as a nutritional supplement. Leaves can be dried in a dehydrator on the lowest temperature setting, about 35°C for 12 to 18 hours. Leaves can also be dried by hanging them in a well aired shaded area. Leaves can also be dried in a netting suspended in a shaded area. 

1.    IRIO (Kenyan recipe) Source; 
Ingredients 
•    60 g stinging nettle leaves
•    200 g potatoes    
•    200 g beans (dried)        
•    100 g green maize    
•    Enough water for cooking

Procedure
•    Select and soak the beans overnight. This significantly reduces the cooking time
•    Shell the maize and select the beans to remove unwanted particles
•    Pluck the stalks off the leaves, and then wash the leaves twice to ensure absolute removal of mud and insects. Set aside for use later
•    Mix and wash the maize and the beans together
•    Put these into a pot or cooking pan, and then add water to slightly cover the food and boil until they are all cooked i.e. when the beans are soft on pressing between the fingers. . If using pressure cooker, cook for 20 minutes and allow to cool on its own.
•    Add the peeled and cleaned potatoes to the maize and beans 
•    Without chopping, add the leaves to the pot and continue boiling until the potatoes are soft enough to be mashed. By now the water level should have greatly reduced 
•    Drain off any excess water. (This excess water can, however, be kept aside to soften baby food)
•    Mash the food until all the potatoes are all thoroughly mashed and the food evenly mixed

Variation:
To prepare a child’s dish from the same, eliminate the maize and mash till soft and light enough for a child. The food can be made lighter by adding the excess water drained out before mashing.
Also, stinging nettle leaves can be substituted with pumpkin leaves or leaves of kahurura (Cucumis ficifolia).

Source: Cookbook for traditional vegetables (IPGRI. 2006). Unpublished

Introduction

Vernonia amygdalina, commonly known as bitter leaf (bitterleaf) belongs to the genus Vernonia in the family Asterace

ae (sunflower family). The genus Vernonia is vast, comprising over 1000 species, among them, more than 300 species in Africa, with approximately one-third of these in Madagascar.
Four related woody species used as vegetable are known by the name bitter leaf: The common bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina), the sweet bitter leaf (V. hymenolepis), star-flowered bitter leaf (V. colorata) and country bitter leaf (V. thomsoniana). A fifth vegetable species, Vernonia cinerea or little ironweed is an annual commonly found in crop fields. V. amygdalina and V. hymenolepis are mainly wild but are often cultivated or preserved in cropland in West Africa. The similar looking V. colorata is less frequently cultivated and is generally found in drier areas of Africa. It is frequently consumed in the drier parts of West and Central Africa. V. thomsoniana is more commonly found in the wild particularly on highlands and is the bitterest of the five species. 
Species within the genus Vernonia are very variable and differences may not be obvious especially between V. colorata and V. amygdalina. V. thomsoniana has smaller leaves than the cultivated ones.
Vernonia amygdalina holds great culinary and medicinal significance in Africa. Despite its bitter taste, the leaves are widely used in traditional African cuisine as a vegetable and for flavoring soups and stews. The bitterness is often reduced by mixing with other vegetables like the waterleaf (Talinum triangulare). Varieties that are less bitter can be found, but are still not common. V. amygdalina is commonly found in Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and Congo (Democratic Republic) and to a lesser extent in their neighboring states. The Luhya in western Kenya use V. amygdalina as a vegetable, but do not cultivate it. This bitterleaf species can also be found in South-East Asia where it is similarly grown as a vegetable. Bitter leaf is a popular vegetable in West Africa. In Cameroon the species grows spontaneously all over the country.
Apart from its culinary use, Bitter Leaf has a long history of use in traditional medicine. It is believed to possess various medicinal properties, the leaves, roots, and stem, are used to treat ailments such as malaria, stomachaches, and fevers. Several countries in Africa, including Nigeria, Ghana, and Cameroon, are major producers and consumers of Bitter Leaf due to its popularity in local cuisines and traditional medicine. In the global markets, herbal medicine companies and health food stores source Bitter Leaf extracts and supplements from both local African producers and international suppliers (Ucheck Fomum, F., 2004). 

Species accounts

Vernonia amygdalina is a single-stemmed shrub to 3 m, sometimes a tree to 10 m. The much branched; stem may be up to 40 cm in diameter. Bark: Pale grey, rather rough, flaking later, branches brittle. Leaves: Ovate, up to 20 x 5 cm, tapering at both ends, dark green above, soft pale hairs below, edge may be widely toothed. Flowers: White-green, each only 6 mm across, in dense branching flattened heads to 30 cm across, sweet scented in the evening. Fruit: Tiny seeds with stiff white hairs.
V. amygdalina is easily mistaken with V. colorata in West and Central Africa. The two species are used in a similarly manner. V. amygdalina has leaves with irregular edges, dented with hairy fruits. It grows spontaneously in secondary forest. V. colorata on the contrary has leaves with regular edges with glabrous fruits. It grows in dry derived savannahs. The leaves of V. amygdalina are sometimes collected from the wild but most people prefer leaves from cultivated plants which are generally less bitter. (Stivels, 1990, Ucheck Fomum, 2004). 

Ecological conditions 

Vernonia amygdalina occurs naturally along rivers and lakes, in forest margins, woodland and grassland, up to 2000 m. It often occurs in disturbed localities such as abandoned farmland, and can be found growing spontaneously in secondary forest. It requires full sunlight in cultivation. Flowering is induced by short days. It prefers a humid environment although it is fairly drought tolerant. It can be found on all soil types, but performs best in humus-rich soils.
The species has been observed to be eaten by goats in Central Zone of Delta State, Nigeria. However, in general, it has been found that Vernonia amygdalina have an astringent taste, which affects its intake (Bonsi et al., 1995a). A mixture of Vernonia and molasses has been tried in order to make bitterleaf more palatable by animals, but 6.6 % of DM intake had to be added to improve the intake of Vernonia. During the dry period, dairy farmers in southern Ethiopia feed animals with boiled Vernonia, since the boiling decreases the content of secondary plant compounds and makes the feed more palatable. Vernonia amygdalina has also been fed to broilers, where it was able to replace 300 g kg-1 of maize-based diet without affecting feed intake, body weight gain and feed efficiency (Teguia et al., 1993 cited by Bonsi et al., 1995a).

Related species

1.     Vernonia hymenolepis can be found wild in mountainous areas in Cameroon, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia and is frequently cultivated in Cameroon where it is referred to as sweet bitterleaf. It is also called bayangi bitterleaf because of its popularity with the Bayangi people in the Manyu division of South-West Cameroon. Sweet bitterleaf is grown as an annual crop, which reaches a height of about 75 cm when grown as a kitchen-garden crop or in mixed cropping systems, whereas in the wild it can be either annual or perennial depending on the availability of moisture in the soil. In some places near streams, wild shrubs of 3 m high can be observed which are probably at least 2 or 3 years old. V. hymenolepsis is by far the least tolerant to drought. It is therefore often found in marshy areas or at high altitudes and its cultivation during the dry season requires frequent irrigation.

2.     Vernonia colorata

This is a shrub or small tree. The leaves are oval or more frequently elongated, with distinctly undulate margins. The upper surface is harshly hairy, the undersurface covered in dense woolly hairs, obscuring the net-veining. The flowerheads are star-shaped, forming large terminal clusters, mauve when young but soon turning white. Of the four frequently consumed Vernonia species in West Africa, V. colorata is most tolerant to drought (Hyde et al, 2018).

3.    V. thomsoniana is an erect slender, sparingly-branched shrub up to 3(5) m. tall. Stems may be one to several with the upper stem and branches finely ribbed and densely hairy. Leaves are 10 x 5 cm. or larger. The lower surface is soft-hairy. The species is found from sub-montane forest margins and grassland to high rainfall mixed deciduous woodland and grassland throughout tropical Africa from Guinea and the Sudan southwards to Angola and Mozambique at medium altitudes.

4.    Vernonia cinerea is an erect, branched or unbranched herb up to 1.5 m high, usually 30-100 cm. Stem with longitudinal lines, hairy. Leaves: Broadly ovate, slightly hairy, margin wavy or toothed, base flat, narrowed or rounded. Flowers: Purple or white, borne on a terminal branched inflorescence. 
The species is widespread in Africa. It is mainly found in wet areas, in grassland, roadsides, disturbed areas and cultivated land as a weed, often under trees. Commonest during wet seasons in hot low areas, 0-1,700 m. The leaves are used as vegetables among the Mijikenda groups of Kenya. Leaves are often cooked with other vegetables as by themselves, they have a strong odour. Common combinations are Launaea cornuta (mchunga), amaranths and cowpea leaves. It can be grown easily from seed. (Maundu et al., 1999).

 Agronomic aspects 

Propagation is possible by seed, but most farmers use stem cuttings selected on the basis of attributes such as degree of bitterness, leaf size and growth characteristics. In home gardens more than one type is often grown because young people prefer the less bitter types and elderly people the more bitter ones. Cuttings grow faster than seedlings. Seed may be collected from dry flower heads. Seedlings are grown under shades. Seeds are broadcasted or sown in lines spaced at 15-20cm apart. After 7 days seedlings emerge. Overcrowding will cause rotting of seedlings. When the weather is dried, watering is to be done at least once a day. Before transplanting the seedlings, leaves are tasted for their bitterness using the tongue. The seedlings are transplanted at 6 weeks old. In mixed cropping systems, seedlings are spaced 75 x 75 cm, while they are spaced at about 20 x 20 cm in monocropping. A closer spacing will reduce the vigour due to etiolation (being thin and tall) and competition for nutrients and water. In some home gardens people plant bitterleaf amongst other crops or as a hedge or live fence; in commercial fields it is planted in rows
Cultivation practices
V. amygadalina is generally multiplied by planting shoots in to the soil. Mature and young stem cuttings are used for planting. The cuttings are planted at 450 angle to foster the growth of shoots. Cuttings are selected from varieties known for their attributes. Young leaves that emerge after about three weeks are in a high demand in the market especially during drought periods.

Husbandry
Weeding, mulching and the application of organic manure in the nursery stage contribute to healthy and rapid growth of seedlings and cuttings. During the dry season bitterleaf is scarce and thus expensive at the markets and therefore irrigation is profitable. Old branches should be pruned back to a low level to stimulate the production of larger, succulent and abundant foliage. This is best done before the arrival of the rains. Some farmers deliberately prune their bushes back at the end of the rainy season and make sure that the plants receive adequate water. The young light-green sprouts with large leaves that emerge after about 3 weeks are very valuable at the market, since at that time most other leaves have turned grayish in color, are much smaller and distinctly coarser and bitter. Young plants are more productive than older ones and commercial farmers prefer to plant a new crop at the beginning of every new season or after the second year. They do not remove their old crop until they have been able to harvest the first regrowth at the start of the season because this commands a premium price.

Harvesting and post-harvest practices

Harvesting
The first harvest takes place at about 4 weeks after transplanting. Plants are ratooned at 5-10 cm above ground, when the plants are about 40-50 cm in height. This operation will enable the lateral shoots to grow and extend harvesting for 2 to 3 months. During the rainy season, harvesting takes place by cutting the leafy shoots, allowing new side shoots to develop, which can be harvested a few weeks later. Stems of various lengths are cut in the afternoon and these are sorted and tied into bundles of equal length. The bundles are kept overnight, placed upright in a basin of water and sometimes covered with jute bags to avoid desiccation. The bundles themselves are tied together into bigger bundles before they are carried to the market. During the dry periods people pick only the leaves and leave the shoots intact. Young pale green sprouts with large leaves grown under irrigation during the dry periods fetch high prices in the market, because by this time most leaves of other plants are small and very bitter.
After each harvest, urea is applied to help growth of new shoots. Contact of urea and leaves should be avoided to prevent fertilizer burn. Stems are tied in bundles whose size varies with the season. The bundle can be about 1kg in rainy season but reduces to about ½ kg during the drought period. 
Post-harvest practices
Stems of various lengths are cut in the afternoon and tied into bundles. These bundles are kept overnight, placed upright in a basin of water. Alternatively, several other bundles are tied together and sprinkled with some water ready for market. Sometimes bundles are covered with jute bags to avoid desiccation.
Leaves may be shredded and pounded in a mortar. During pounding foam develops. This foam and bitterness is removed by repeatedly rinsing the leaves with water between poundings. Leaves may be shredded and boiled first. The pounded leaves are rinsed until the water that drains off is no longer green. Alternatively, the leaves are pressed into fist-sized balls before they are marketed. People have become careful when buying processed bitterleaf because some unscrupulous traders use other plants to increase the volume. Office workers in the main cities no longer have the time to prepare bitterleaf themselves and have become accustomed to a ready-made product offered at the local markets. A more bitter product is obtained by stopping the formation of foam during pounding by adding palm oil.
In urban areas, consumers are accustomed to buying ready-made products to cook their meals. Thus there is high demand for these processed products (Schippers, 2000).

Nutritional value and recipes

The bitter taste of Vernonia amygdalina is due to anti-nutritional factors such as alkaloids, saponins, tannins and glycosides (Buttler and Bailey, 1973; Ologunde et al., 1992 cited by Bonsi et al. 1995a; Anonymous, 1999). The leaves are rich in protein, fibre, calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, zinc, vitamin A, riboflavin, Vit B6 and folate.